CASTING DEFECTS

BY: DR PALLAVI MADANSHETTY

INTRODUCTION

 An unsuccessful casting results in considerable

trouble and time. In almost all instances, defects
in castings can be avoided by strict observance of
procedures governed by certain fundamental rules
and principles.
 With the present technique, casting failures
should be the exception, not the rule.
2
 CAUSES OF DEFECTIVE CASTING

CASTING DEFECTS

SURFACE
INCOMPLET
ROUGHNES SURFACE
E OR
DISTORTION S AND POROSITY DISCOLORA
MISSING
IRREGULARI TION
DETAILS
TIES

3
 DISTORTION

4
 Wax distortion is the most serious problem that
can occur during the forming and removal of the
pattern from the mouth or die.
DISTORTION
DISTORTION

5
 REMEDY
 Don’t over heat wax.
 Place in increments.
 Never cool the pattern suddenly.
 Avoid occluding air during manipulation.
 Carve with sharp instruments.
 Permit it to attain equilibrium.
 Invest immediately after it is removed from the die.
 Place it in the centre of the casting ring. 6
 SURFACE ROUGHNESS

7
 SURFACE ROUGHNESS:
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Defined as relatively finely spaced surface
imperfections whose height, width and direction
establish the predominant surface pattern.

NOTE:

The surface roughness of the casting is invariably

greater than that of the wax pattern from which it
is made.

The difference is related to particle size of the

investment and its ability to reproduce the wax 8

pattern in microscopic detail.

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Ratio of binder/ quartz influences surface
texture (A coarse silica causes surface
roughness.)

9
SURFACE ROUGHNESS OTHER CAUSES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Surface
roughnes
s

Prolonged
heating or
over heating
of the mold

Premature
High L/P
heating of
investment ratio

Excess 10
wetting
agent
 EXCESS L/P RATIO
SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Excess L/P ratio

Increased amount of excess water

Large number of porosities in the investment

Rough casting 11
 PROLONGED HEATING OF THE MOLD
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Prolonged heating of the mold cause
disintegration of gypsum bonded investment.

As a result, walls of the mold are roughened.

REMEDY :

When thermal expansion technique is employed,

the mold should be heated to casting
temperature – never higher and the casting
should be made immediately.
Generalized casting roughness may indicate a
breakdown of the investment from excessive burnout12
temperature.
.
SURFACE IRREGULARITIES

13
 SURFACE IRREGULARITIES:
These are isolated imperfections such as nodules that
are not characteristic of the entire surface area.
Nodules

Water films

Surface
irregulariti
es
Fins

14
1. NODULES

15
TYPES OF NODULES

Nodul
es

Large
nodules

Multiple
nodules Small
16
 SMALL NODULES
Small air bubbles can become attached to the pattern
during or following the investing procedure. During the
casting, the bubble is filled with the casting material (alloy)
and is manifested as a nodule (small)

These nodules if present on the margins or on internal

surface might alter the fit of the casting, if removal of these
irregularities is attempted.

But if they are present in some non-critical area they can

be removed easily. 

17
 REMEDY:

The best method to eliminate the

SMALL NODULES

incorporation of air in the casting

investment is

i) By mixing under vacuum.

ii) By using wetting agents

Wetting agent should be applied in thin layer
and air-dried because any excess liquid dilutes
the investment, possibly producing surface
roughness.

18
 Castings with phosphate bonded investments
are more prone to such imperfections.
SMALL NODULES

 They can be removed with ¼ or ½ round

bur.

A binocular microscope is extremely helpful in

detecting and removing them.

19
 LARGE NODULES MULTIPLE NODULES

 Produced by air  Inadequate vacuum

trapped during during investing
investing procedure  Improper brush
technique.
 Lack of surfactant

20
2. WATER FILMS

21
Wax is repellent to water, if the investment becomes
separated from the wax pattern in some manner, a
water film may form irregularly over the surface.

This type of irregularity appears as minute ridges or

veins on the surface.

Water film
Water film

Space around the

Space around the
wax pattern
wax pattern

22
 THIS CONDITION OCCURS:-

●
If the pattern is slightly
moved or vibrated
after investing

Water films

●
●If there is no intimate
contact of the
investment and pattern
REMEDY:
Water films
Use of Surfactant helps prevent such irregularities
23
3. FINS

24
Fins occur when cracks are produced in the investment
that radiate out from the surface of the pattern .

Molten alloy flows into the cracks forming thin fins on the
casting.

Significance :

Finning increases the time required for to finish the

casting and if the defects occur in critical areas (e.g. near
25
the crown shoulder) can result in a need to re-cast.
REASONS THAT PRODUCE FINS
Improper
Weak mix Improper
Weak mix positioning
of the positioning
of the of the
investment of the
investment pattern
pattern

Too rapid Premature

Too rapid FINS Premature
heating FINS heating
heating heating

Cooling of
Excessive Cooling of
Excessive investment
casting investment 26
casting prior to
force prior to
force casting
casting
 1.PATTERN POSITION
a. Positioning of several patterns too close and in the
same plane in the mold lead to formation of fins.

Reason : The expansion of the wax is much greater

than that of the investment, causing breakdown or
FINS

cracking of the investment if the spacing between

patterns is less than 3mm.

27
 b. Patterns placed too near the edge of the investment
causes fins.

Reason

If too little investment covers the wax patterns, the

alloy is more likely to break through the mold.
FINS

c. Too much investment over the wax ups may locate

the wax patterns too close to the heat centre of the
mold and impair the escape of gases

28
 Remedy: Proper positioning of the wax pattern.
Remedy: Proper positioning of the wax pattern.
The casting ring should permit the patterns to be 3- 6 mm
The casting ring should permit the patterns to be 3- 6 mm
apart.
apart.
 6mm from the top of the investment.
 6mm from the top of the investment. 29
 Minimum 9mm of investment between them and the ring
 Minimum 9mm of investment between them and the ring
 2a. RAPID HEATING RATES
Too high heating rate of investment  outside layer
becomes hot faster than the inner layer.

Outside layer tends to expand more than the inner

parts. However, the outside layer is held back by
the inner, cooler part.
FINS

Outside layer is subject to compressive stresses,

while the inner part is subject to tensile stresses.

Since the investment is a brittle material, it tends to

crack under tensile stresses.

During casting, these cracks are filled by the casting 30

alloy, manifesting as fins or spines.
 2b.Rapid heating rates

A characteristic surface roughness may be

evident because of the flaking of the investment
when the water/ steam pours into the mold.
FINS

Remedy
Remedy
Ideally, 60 min should elapse during the heating of
Ideally, 60 min should elapse during the heating of
the investment filled ring from room temperature to
the investment filled ring from room temperature to
700º C
700º C
 The greater the bulk of the investment, the more 31
 The greater the bulk of the investment, the more
slow it should be heated.
slow it should be heated.
 3. PREMATURE HEATING

If setting is not complete at the time a ring is

placed in the oven, the mold may be weak and
unable to withstand steam pressure during
FINS

burnout.

Investment could fracture as a consequence.

Remedy:
Remedy:
Burnout should be initiated only
Burnout should be initiated only
after the recommended setting time.
after the recommended setting time. 32
 4. LIQUID-POWDER RATIO

The higher the liquid/powder ratio, the rougher the

casting (the investment becomes weak and develop
cracks).

If too little water is used the investment

FINS

unmanageably thick cannot be properly applied to the

pattern in vacuum investing and air may not be
sufficiently removed leading to back pressure porosity.

REMEDY
REMEDY
Correct proportion of powder to liquid and any
Correct proportion of powder to liquid and any
dilution of the (special) liquid with distilled water 33
dilution of the (special) liquid with distilled water
should be established for each alloy.
should be established for each alloy.
 5. CASTING PRESSURE

Reason: Too high pressure during casting causes fins .

REMEDY
REMEDY
Casting should provide enough force to cause
Casting should provide enough force to cause
FINS

the liquid alloy to flow onto the heated mold.

the liquid alloy to flow onto the heated mold.
 Adjust the casting machine to the requirements
 Adjust the casting machine to the requirements
of each alloy. Lower-density metals generally need
of each alloy. Lower-density metals generally need
four winds of a centrifugal casting arm as
four winds of a centrifugal casting arm as
compared to higher-density, gold based alloys.
compared to higher-density, gold based alloys.
Don't over wind.  
Don't over wind.  
34
A gauge pressure of 0.10 to 0.14 MPa in an air
A gauge pressure of 0.10 to 0.14 MPa in an air
pressure casting machine is sufficient.
 POROSITIES

35
I. Solidification

Localized II. Trapped gases

shrinkage III. Residual air
porosity
Suck-back Pinhole
porosity Back pressure
porosity
porosity
Micro-porosity Gas inclusion
Subsurface
porosity

36
I.POROSITIES DUE TO METAL

SOLIDIFICATION

37
 1. LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY
(SHRINK-SPOT POROSITY)

Linear contraction of noble metal alloys in changing from

liquid to solid – 1.25%

Therefore continued feeding of molten metal through the

sprue must occur to compensate for casting shrinkage
i.e. shrinkage during solidification.(Insufficient feeding
causes porosity)

It usually occurs if the sprue solidifies before the casting

Cause: Premature termination of the flow of metal

during solidification. 38
 LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY MAINLY
OCCURS WHERE SOLIDIFICATION OCCURS
LAST.

39
 Remedy: use
Remedy: use
LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY
Solidifies
Solidifies of reservoir
later
later of reservoir
Solidifies last Alloy that fills the
Solidifies last restoration will
solidify first.
Solidifies
Solidifies
first
first

As the molten metal

Solidifies last solidifies, it shrinks
Solidifies last
and creates a vacuum

Solidifies later
Solidifies later

Solidifies first Vacuum will draw40

Solidifies first additional metal from
an adjacent source 
The reservoir.
LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY Occurs usually near the sprue-casting junction.

And may occur anywhere between dendrites where

the last portion of the casting solidify, mainly the

bulkiest portion of the casting, i.e. the sprue

pattern junction.

41
 REMEDY # 1
LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

Attach the large reservoir in the sprue of

Attach the large reservoir in the sprue of
thickness more than the thickest portion of the
thickness more than the thickest portion of the
pattern and as close as possible to the pattern
pattern and as close as possible to the pattern
(1mm)
(1mm)
42
 Thickness of Maximum
Thickness of Maximum
sprue thickness of
sprue thickness of
pattern
pattern

Last to
Last to
solidify
solidify
Thickness of Maximum
Thickness of Maximum
sprue thickness of
sprue thickness of 43
pattern
pattern
 REMEDY # 2
LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

Position the wax pattern in a “cold zone” of the

Position the wax pattern in a “cold zone” of the
investment mold and the reservoir in the “heat
investment mold and the reservoir in the “heat
centre” of the casting ring. 44
centre” of the casting ring.
 Sprue base former
Sprue base former

Sprue
Sprue

Wax pattern
Wax pattern

Investment Material
Investment Material

45
LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY
The coolest parts of the mold (cold zones) are
the end of the ring and along the ring periphery.

The hottest portion of the casting ring is located

near the centre of the ring (heat centre).

Limit the amount of investment covering the

patterns to no more than ¼ inch (6mm) &
position the reservoir in the heat centre.

So the proper length of sprue is important to

keep the pattern away from heat centre close to
the end of the casting ring.

46
 REMEDY # 3.
LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY
Do not cast a button if a connector (runner) bar, or
other internal reservoir, is used with indirect Spruing,
the largest mass of metal should be the reservoir.

A button is counterproductive because it can draw

available molten alloy from the bar, shift the heat
centre and reduce the feed of that metal to the
restorations.

Likewise, the wax pattern should not be larger than

the connector bar.

47
 2. SUCK - BACK (HOT-SPOT)POROSITY

Localized shrinkage may also occur in the fitting surface

of the crown near the area of the sprue.

Occurs often on occlusoaxial / incisoaxial line angles that

are not well rounded and also when the sprue is attached
at right angles to the pattern.

48
 Hot spot
Hot spot

49
 Impedance to flow
Impedance to flow

90º

Sprue
Sprue
SUCK - BACK POROSITY

 The entering metal impinges on to the mold surface

at this point and creates a higher localized mold
temperature at this region known as “Hot Spot”.

A hot spot may retain a localized pool of molten

metal after other areas of the casting have
solidified. This in turn creates a shrinkage void or
suck back porosity.
50
 IMPORTANCE OF FLARED SPRUE
Maximum
Impedance to flow
Impedance to flow
impedance to
90º
flow occurs
when a Sprue
SUCK - BACK POROSITY

Sprue former
Sprue former former makes
an angle of
90º to the
pattern.
Continuity of flow
Continuity of flow
The pattern
45º
should be
Sprue former
Sprue former
placed at 45º
51
 3. MICRO-POROSITY
Micro-porosity voids are irregular in shape.

These voids occur from rapid solidification if mold or casting temperature

is too low.  This defect is not detectable unless casting is sectioned.

Note : Occurs from solidification shrinkage but is generally present in

Fine Grain Alloy Castings
52
 4. SUBSURFACE POROSITY
When the molten metal comes in contact with the low
temperature mold, the outer layer coming in contact
with the mold wall solidifies suddenly and makes a skin
of solid metal which is tenaciously adherent to the
mold wall. When the inner layer shrinks ,the outer
covering of solid metal cannot be dragged along with
it. This leads to subsurface porosity.

53
 HOT TEARS

 Sulphur contamination from investment materials

makes grain boundary weak. So during cooling of
casting, due to difference in COTE value between
investment and casting alloys, cracks are produced
along the grain boundary. These are called hot
tears.

54
II. POROSITIES DUE TO

TRAPPED GASES

(Gaseous porosity)

55
 INTRODUCTION TO GASEOUS POROSITY
Gas or air enter within the molten alloy by either chemical
reaction or
physical mechanism.
 Chemical entrapment
 E.g. Gases may be produced by reaction of the liquid metal
with volatile substances, such as moisture in the mold.
 Physical entrapment
 Mechanically trapped gas.
 E.g. Air may be entrapped in the casting by the sudden rush of
metal during pouring. Since the gases are generally more
soluble in liquid metal than in solid, dissolved gases may be 56
liberated during solidification.
 On cooling the alloys liberate these trapped gases.

But some remain trapped when the alloy becomes rigid.

GASEOUS POROSITY

This type of porosity may affect all parts of the casting.

Types of gaseous porosity

PINHOLE POROSITY

GAS INCLUSION POROSITY

Gaseous
porosity

Note: Both these porosities are related to the entrapment

of gas during solidification and are characterized by spherical
57
contour but size is varied i.e. gas inclusion larger in size
compared to pinhole.
 Remedy
Remedy
Molten metal 1. Avoid
Sprue Molten metal
Sprue
GASEOUS POROSITY

overheating of
the alloy
Displaced air
Displaced air 2. Casting in the
atmosphere of
an inert gas or
vacuum.
Molten metal
Molten metal 3. Avoid using
Sprue
Sprue
large sprues.

58
Trapped air
Trapped air
 Many metals

PINHOLE POROSITY dissolve or occlude

gases in their molten
state e.g. both
copper and silver
dissolve O2 in large
amount in liquid
state.

Molten platinum and

palladium have a
strong affinity for
hydrogen as well as
oxygen.

On solidification 59
of
metal absorbed
 NOTE :

All castings contain certain amount of porosity, but

PIN HOLE POROSITY

they should be kept minimum as they will adversely

affect the physical properties of the casting.

Castings that are severely contaminated with gases

are usually black when removed and do not clean

easily on pickling.

60
 GAS INCLUSION POROSITY

The larger spherical voids are caused by gas that is

mechanically trapped by the molten metal in the mold
or by gas that is incorporated during the casting
procedure.

The gas could be occluded from poorly adjusted torch

flame or by use of mixing or oxidizing zone of flame
rather than reducing zone.
 

61
GAS INCLUSION POROSITY

62
III. POROSITIES DUE
TO
RESIDUAL AIR

63
INTRODUCTION
 Air present in the mold cavity pushed is out by molten
metal.
 Presence of air in the cavity will not allow the metal to
flow
 Air in mold escape by
 By pressure gradient
 Escape through pores in the investment

64
 BACK PRESSURE POROSITY

Back pressure affects are caused by an inability of air or

other gases within the mould to escape, making a way
for the alloy.
 EXPLANATION :
 As the liquid enters the mould through the sprue, the air
trapped in the mould is compressed at the extremities,
which can exert back pressure preventing the alloy liquid
to occupy this region.

65
Note : A casting which has been subjected to back
pressure is rounded at the edges and lacking in detail

Rounded edges due to

back pressure
66
 CAUSES OF RESIDUAL AIR
BACK PRESSURE POROSITY
Trapped
air

Clogging of
mold with
residual
carbon

Inadequate Dense
casting and modern
mould investment
temperature

Increased
Increased
distance
distance
between
between
pattern
pattern and
and
67
end
end of
of casting
casting
ring.
ring.
 FACTOR # I. DENSE MODERN INVESTMENT
BACK PRESSURE POROSITY
 Increased density α Inadequate porosity in the
investment to vent out trapped air.
 Investment materials in the increasing order of
density and decreasing order of porosity.

Phosphate
Gypsum
Silica bonded bonded
bonded

 Density of the material may increase with vacuum

mixing and low L/P ratio.
Note: Silica bonded and phosphate bonded
materials very frequently produce incomplete 68
castings.
BACK PRESSURE POROSITY REMEDY I

When using silica bonded or fine grained

When using silica bonded or fine grained
phosphate bonded investments, a vent sprue
phosphate bonded investments, a vent sprue
former , 0.5 mm in diameter, should be
former , 0.5 mm in diameter, should be
provided to allow escape of gases towards the 69
provided to allow escape of gases towards the
crucible end of the mold.
crucible end of the mold.
BACK PRESSURE POROSITY REMEDY II

The end of the ring should not be completely covered by

The end of the ring should not be completely covered by
any part of the casting apparatus.
any part of the casting apparatus.
In all cases the plate of metal that supports the end of
In all cases the plate of metal that supports the end of
the ring should be perforated .
the ring should be perforated .
Dense layer of investment material is often created at
Dense layer of investment material is often created at
the base of the ring, particularly when the base of the ring
the base of the ring, particularly when the base of the ring
has been closed temporarily by a sheet of metal or glass.
has been closed temporarily by a sheet of metal or glass.
This dense layer should scraped away to facilitate the
This dense layer should scraped away to facilitate the
escape of gases.
escape of gases.
70
BACK PRESSURE POROSITY 2. INCREASED DISTANCE BETWEEN PATTERN
AND END OF CASTING RING

Even though, Gypsum bonded investment is

porous, if the thickness of investment at the
extremity of pattern is more than 6mm the
porosity becomes less effective.

Remedy :
Remedy :
To assist the escape of gases, the investment
To assist the escape of gases, the investment
materials between the casting and end of the ring
materials between the casting and end of the ring 71
should be as thin as is consistent with strength
should be as thin as is consistent with strength
BACK PRESSURE POROSITY METHOD TO ENHANCE VENTING OF GASES

72
BACK PRESSURE POROSITY 3. CLOGGING OF MOLD WITH
3.
RESIDUAL CARBON

It is advisable to begin the burnout procedure

while the mould is still wet.

Water trapped in the pores of the investment

reduces the absorption of wax.

As the water vaporizes it flushes wax from the

mold.

73
 INCOMPLETE CASTING

It is due to inadequate amount of molten metal

entering the mould.

74
 REASONS OF INCOMPLETE CASTING
Incomplete
Incomplete
melting of
melting of
alloy
alloy
Too low
Insufficient Too low
Insufficient casting
alloy casting
alloy force
force

Blocking
Blocking
due to pre
Incomplete Poor
casting Poor
due to pre
solidification castability
solidification castability
in sprue
in sprue

Blocking of
Blocking of to
sprue due
Incomplete sprue loose
due to 75
Incomplete
dewaxing loose
investment
dewaxing investment
particles
particles
INCOMPLETE CASTING REASON 1
INSUFFICIENT VENTING OF MOLD:-

Directly related to back pressure exerted by

the air in mold.

If insufficient casting pressure is applied the back

pressure cannot be overcome, therefore pressure

should be applied for 4 seconds. (The mold is filled

and the alloy solidifies in 1sec, yet it is quite soft

during early stages therefore pressure should be

maintained for few seconds beyond this point). 76

INCOMPLETE CASTING REASON 2

INCOMPLETE ELIMINATION OF WAX RESIDUE:- 

If too many products of combustion remain in the

mold, the pores of the investment become clogged
and air cannot be vented properly.

Contact of molten metal with wax or moisture

produces an explosion that may produce sufficient
back pressure to prevent the mold from being filled

Castings seen are generally shiny with rounded

defects.

77
INCOMPLETE CASTING REASON 3

HIGH VISCOSITY OF FUSED METALS

 An incomplete casting resulting from too great

a viscosity is attributed to insufficient heating. 
 Temperature of the alloy should be raised higher
than its liquid temperature so that its viscosity and
surface tension are lowered and so that it does not
solidify prematurity as it enters the mold.

78
INCOMPLETE CASTING
OTHER REASONS

4. Inadequate metal.

5. Cool mold or melt

6. Too thin Wax pattern

79
SURFACE DISCOLORATION

80
SURFACE DISCOLORATION
PROLONGED HEATING OF THE MOLD
When high heat casting technique is used prolonged

heating of the mold cause disintegration of gypsum

bonded investment and products of decomposition are

sulphur compounds that contaminate the alloy to the

extent that surface texture is affected. Such

contamination do not respond to pickling.

81
SURFACE DISCOLORATION
Surface discoloration also results from high

sulphur content of flame torch.

Interaction of molten alloy with sulphur

black/Grey layer on the surface of gold alloys

that is brittle and doesn't clean readily during

pickling.

Remedy : When thermal expansion technique is

Remedy : When thermal expansion technique is
employed, the mold should be heated to casting
employed, the mold should be heated to casting
temperature – never higher – and the casting should
temperature – never higher – and the casting should 82
be made immediately
be made immediately
SURFACE DISCOLORATION CARBON INCLUSIONS

CARBON AS FROM:

A crucible

An improperly adjusted torch

Carbon-containing investment

Can be absorbed by the alloy during casting

May lead to formation of carbides or even

create visible carbon inclusions.

83
 CONCLUSION
 By standardizing technique & paying strict attention
to each step, it is often possible to control the
location of the solidification shrinkage & minimize
the number of actual miscasts. When casting
failures occur, we should troubleshoot each miscast
to diagnose the cause of the problem so corrective
measures may be taken before we make additional
casting.
84
 REFERENCES

 Kenneth J. Anusavice. Phillips’ science of

Dental Materials. eleventh edition,

Saunders company.

 John M. Powers, Ronald L. Sakaguchi.

Craig’s Restorative Dental Materials.

Twelfth edition, mosby.

85
THANK YOU

86