Planar (2-D) Defects

STACKING FAULT
abcabcabc ….
STACKING FAULT?
ababcabcabc….

abababab….
Stacking fault is…
ababcabab….
Stacking faults
influence strength

Stacking fault energy

Is energy required for
stacking faults to
occur
PLANAR OR 2D DEFECTS

-GRAIN BOUNDARIES

- found in polycrystalline materials

SINGLE CRYSTALS AND POLYCRYSTALS
-A group of one or more unit cells = a single crystal
(a grain)
-A group of more than one grain = a polycrystal
(but not termed a polygrain!)
 Orientation Imaging of Magnesium
Polycrystalline alloy

c. AZ31+0.19%Ca: 23 µm
200 µm Step =10 µm 200 µm Step =10 200 µm Step = 3 µm
µm
a. AZ31: 90 µm b. AZ31+0.19%Sr: 60µm AZ31+0.19%Ca: 23 μm

6
SINGLE CRYSTALS AND POLYCRYSTALS
-A group of one or more unit cells = a single crystal
(a grain)
-A group of more than one grain = a polycrystal
(but not termed a polygrain!)
-Under normal (i.e. industrial) circumstances,
all crystalline solids are polycrystals
Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)
Grain Boundaries (GBs)
Interfaces between single crystals
characterized by relative differences in crystal orientation
high angle boundary

Low angle boundary

Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)
LOW ANGLE BOUNDARIES (CONT.)

Low angle
boundary is
an array of
dislocations

Aka ‘sub-boundary’
Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)
Sub-grain boundaries

are low angle boundaries

Often occur within grains with high angle boundaries

High angle

Sub-grain
boundary
Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)
Grain boundary energy
Lack of complete primary bonding means
GBs increase energy of material

-still pretty close packed, so grains strongly bonded

( density largely unaffected, for example). i.e. ‘no’ space
between grains
 Transmission
Electron
Microscopy: gold

https://www.fei.com/image-
gallery/grain-boundary-gold/
Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)
Grain boundary energy
Lack of complete bonding GBs increase energy of material

-still pretty close packed, so grains strongly bonded

( density largely unaffected, for example). i.e. ‘no’ space
-small grains will coarsen (if given the chance) between grains
-this lowers total energy of system.
(BUT fine grained material is often better)
Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)

Twin Boundary
Boundary separating mirror images of crystals
(180 deg translation /rotation
about the mirror plane)
(180 deg translation /rotation
about the mirror plane)
(180 deg translation /rotation
about the mirror plane)
(180 deg translation /rotation
about the mirror plane)
(180 deg translation /rotation
about the mirror plane)
Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)

Twin Boundary (180 deg

Boundary separating mirror images of crystals
translation
/rotation about
the twin axis)
Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)
Annealing (heat) twins in FCC,
Mechanical (plastic deformation) twins in
BCC and HCP
Occur on specific planes in specific
directions
Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)

Other interfacial defects

Phase boundaries: boundary between different phases
Planar (2-D) Defects (cont.)

Other interfacial defects

Phase boundaries: boundary between different phases

Domain walls*: separate regions of different magnetic

direction
External surface
Considered an imperfection because it's where the crystal
terminates.

NOTE:
All interfaces increase energy of material …..
because atoms at interfaces aren't stabilized by electron
sharing/exchange strategies.
(incomplete bonding)
 ISOTROPY/ANISOTROPY
AND TEXTURE
Isotropy: material has same properties in all directions
Anisotropy
material has different properties in different directions
-A single crystal exhibits
anisotropy because of different linear and planar atomic
arrangements
-In a polycrystal,
-the single crystals are normally randomly oriented to each
other
-therefore imparting isotropic properties to the polycrystal.
BUT

-Materials can be processed to orient

polycrystals in one specific direction
-takes advantage of property in one particular
crystal direction.
-resulting polycrystal has anisotropic properties
= texture.

(aka: crystallographic texture)

Very important for ‘anisotropic processes’

e.g.: drawing cans from sheet

Also, maximise properties in ‘working’

direction without alloying
(note, 'surface texture' usually concerns
topography, not crystallography)