Electric Current and Circuits: Outline

PART THREE Electromagnetism
CHAPTER
Electric Current and Circuits
CHAPTER
18
OUTLINE
18.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT
18.2 EMF AND CIRCUITS
18.3 MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF CURRENT IN
A METAL: THE FREE-ELECTRON
MODEL
18.4 RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY
18.5 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
18.6 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Slide 1
A net flow of charge is called an electric current .
The current (symbol I ) is defined as the net amount of

charge passing per unit time through an area perpendicular
to the flow direction.
Slide 2
DefinitionELECTRIC CURRENT
18.1
of current:
The SI unit of current, equal to one coulomb per second, is

the ampere (A).
Slide 3
Conventional Current
According to convention, the direction of an electric current
is defined as the direction in which positive charge is
transported or would be transported to produce an
equivalent movement of net charge.
Slide 4
Two wires of cross-sectional area 1.6 mm2 connect the
terminals of a battery to the circuitry in a clock. During a
ELECTRIC
18.1
• Slide
time 5 of 0.040CURRENT
interval s, 5.0 × 1014 electrons move to the
right through a cross section of one of the wires. (Actually,
electrons pass through the cross section in both directions;
the number that cross to the right is 5.0 × 1014 more than the
number that cross to the left.)
What is the magnitude and direction of the current in the

wire?
Strategy
Current is the rate of flow of charge.
ELECTRIC
18.1
• Slide 6 CURRENT
We are given the number N of electrons; multiplying by the
elementary charge e gives the magnitude of moving charge
Δq.
Solution
ELECTRIC
18.1
• Slide 7 CURRENT
Electric Current in Liquids and Gases
Electric currents can exist in
liquids and gases as well as in
solid conductors.
In an ionic solution, both positive
and negative charges contribute
to the current by moving in
opposite directions.
Since positive and negative
charges are moving in opposite
directions, they both contribute
to current in the same direction.
Slide 8
Application : Current in Neon Signs and Fluorescent Lights
Slide 9
To maintain a current in a conducting wire, we need to
maintain a potential difference between the ends of the
wire.
One way to do that is to connect the ends of the wire to the
terminals of a battery (one end to each of the two
terminals).
An ideal battery maintains a constant potential difference
between its terminals, regardless of how fast it must pump
charge to do so. An ideal battery is analogous to an ideal
water pump that maintains a constant pressure difference
between intake and output regardless of the volume flow
rate.
Slide 10
Circuit Symbols for a Battery
Of the two vertical lines, the long line represents the

terminal at higher potential and the short line represents the
terminal at lower potential.
Slide 11
The potential difference maintained by an ideal battery is
called the battery’s emf (symbol ℰ).
Emf originally stood for electromotive force , but emf is not a

measure of the force applied to a charge or to a collection of
charges; emf cannot be expressed in newtons.
Rather, emf is measured in units of potential (volts) and is a

measure of the work done by the battery per unit charge. To
avoid this confusion, we just write “emf” (pronounced ee-
em-ef ).
Slide 12
If18.2 EMF
the amount AND pumped
of charge CIRCUITS
by an ideal battery of emf
ℰ is q, then the work done by the battery is
Work done by an ideal battery:
Slide 13
Emf in an Electric Circuit
Slide 14
Batteries come with various emfs (12 V, 9 V, 1.5 V, etc.) as
well as in various sizes . The size of a battery does not
determine its emf.
Common battery sizes AAA, AA, A, C, and D all provide the

same emf (1.5 V). However, the larger batteries have a
larger quantity of the chemicals and thus store more
chemical energy.
A larger battery can supply more energy by pumping more

charge than a smaller one, even though the two do the
same amount of work per unit charge .
Slide 15
Circuits
Current does not get “used up” in the light bulb any more
than water gets used up in the radiator.
Slide 16
In this chapter, we consider only circuits in which the current
in any branch always moves in the same direction—a direct
current (dc) circuit.
In Chapter 21, we study alternating current (ac) circuits, in

which the currents periodically reverse direction.
Slide 17
18.3 MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF
CURRENT IN A METAL: THE
FREE-ELECTRON MODEL
The electrons have a nonzero average velocity called the

drift velocity . The magnitude of the drift velocity (the
drift speed ) is much smaller than the instantaneous speeds
of the electrons
Slide 18
FREE-ELECTRON MODEL
An electron has a uniform acceleration between collisions ,
but every collision sends it off in some new direction with a
different speed. Each collision between an electron and an
ion is an opportunity for the electron to transfer some of its
kinetic energy to the ion.
The net result is that the drift velocity is constant, and
energy is transferred from the electrons to the ions at a
constant rate.
Slide 19
FREE-ELECTRON MODEL
Relationship Between Current and Drift Velocity
The number of electrons in the volume is N = nAvDΔt ; the

magnitude of the charge is
Slide 20
FREE-ELECTRON MODEL
Therefore, the magnitude of the current in the wire is
Remember that, since electrons carry negative charge, the

direction of current flow is opposite the direction of motion
of the electrons. The electric force on the electrons is
opposite the electric field, so the current is in the direction
of the electric field in the wire.
Slide 21
FREE-ELECTRON MODEL
The equation
can be generalized to systems in which the current carriers

are not necessarily electrons, simply by replacing e with the
charge of the carriers:
The quantities v+ and v− are drift speeds —both are positive.
Slide 22
A #12 gauge copper wire, commonly used in household
wiring, has a diameter of 2.053 mm. There are 8.00 × 1028
18.323
MICROSCOPIC
18.2
• Slide
conduction VIEW
electrons per cubic meterOF CURRENT
in copper.
IN A METAL: THE FREE-
If theELECTRON MODEL
wire carries a constant dc current of 5.00 A, what is the
drift speed of the electrons?
Solution
• 18.2
18.3
MICROSCOPIC
Slide 24 VIEW OF CURRENT
IN A METAL: THE FREE-
ELECTRON MODEL
Resistance
Suppose we maintain a potential difference across the ends
of a conductor. How does the current I that flows through
the conductor depend on the potential difference Δ V
across the conductor?
For many conductors, the I is proportional to Δ V .
Slide 25
18.426Law
RESISTANCE
• Slide
Ohm's AND RESISTIVITY
Ohm’s law is not a universal law of physics like the
conservation laws.
It does not apply at all to some materials, whereas even

materials that obey Ohm’s law for a wide range of potential
differences fail to do so when Δ V becomes too large.
Any homogeneous material follows Ohm’s law for some
range of potential differences; metals that are good
conductors follow Ohm’s law over a wide range of potential
differences.
Slide 27
An ohmic conductor—one that follows Ohm’s law—has a
resistance that is constant, regardless of the potential
difference applied.
For an ohmic conductor, a graph of current versus potential

difference is a straight line through the origin with slope 1/R.
For some nonohmic systems, the graph of I versus ΔV is

dramatically nonlinear.
Slide 29
Slide 30
Resistivity
Resistance depends on size and shape. We expect a long
18
wire to have higher resistance than a short one (everything
else being the same) and a thicker wire to have a lower
.4
RESISTANCE
resistance ANDa thin one.
than
RESISTIVITY
The electrical resistance of a conductor of length L and

cross-sectional area A can be written:
The equation assumes a uniform distribution of current

across the cross section of the conductor.
Slide 33
isRESISTANCE
an intrinsicAND
18
The constant of proportionality ρ (Greek letter rho), which
characteristic of a particular material at a
RESISTIVITY
particular
material.
.4
temperature, is called the resistivity of the
The SI unit for resistivity is Ω·m.
The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity [SI units

(Ω·m) −1].
Slide 34
Slide 35
Resistivity of Water
The resistivity of water depends strongly on the
concentration of ions.
Pure water contains only the ions produced by self-ionization

(H2O ↔H+ + OH− ). As a result, pure water is an insulator.
Even a small amount of dissolved minerals dramatically

lowers the resistivity. The resistivity is so sensitive to the
concentration of impurities that resistivity measurements
are used to determine water purity.
Slide 36
(a) A 30.0-m-long extension cord is made from two #19-
gauge copper wires. (The wires carry currents of equal
18.437 in oppositeAND
RESISTANCE
18.3
• magnitude
Slide RESISTIVITY
directions.) What is the resistance
of each wire at 20.0°C? The diameter of #19-gauge wire
is 0.912 mm.
(b) If the copper wire is to be replaced by an aluminum wire

of the same length, what is the minimum diameter so
that the new wire has a resistance no greater than the
old?
Solution
(a)
18.438
RESISTANCE
18.3
• Slide AND RESISTIVITY
Solution
(b)
18.439
RESISTANCE
18.3
• Slide AND RESISTIVITY
Resistivity Depends on Temperature
Resistivity does not depend on the size or shape of the
material, but it does depend on temperature.
Two factors primarily determine the resistivity of a metal:

the number of conduction electrons per unit volume and
the rate of collisions between an electron and an ion.
The second of these factors is sensitive to changes in

temperature. At a higher temperature, the internal energy is
greater; the ions vibrate with larger amplitudes. As a
result, the electrons collide more frequently with the ions.
Slide 40
With less time to accelerate between collisions, they acquire
a smaller drift speed; thus, the current is smaller for a given
electric field.
Therefore, as the temperature of a metal is raised, its

resistivity increases.
Slide 41
For many materials, the relation between resistivity and
temperature is linear over a fairly wide range of
temperatures (about 500 ° C):
Here ρ0 is the resistivity at temperature T0 and ρ is the

resistivity at temperature T = T0 + ΔT .
The quantity a is called the temperature coefficient of

resistivity and has SI units ° C−1 or K−1 .
Slide 42
The nichrome heating element of a toaster has a resistance
of 12.0 Ω when it is red-hot (1200°C).
RESISTANCE
18.4
• Slide 43 AND RESISTIVITY
What is the resistance of the element at room temperature
(20°C)? Ignore changes in the length or diameter of the
element due to temperature.
Strategy
Since we assume the length and cross-sectional area to be
RESISTANCE
18.4
the• same,
Slide 44 resistances AND
the RESISTIVITY
at the two temperatures are
proportional to the resistivities at those temperatures:
Solution
RESISTANCE
18.4
• Slide 45 AND RESISTIVITY
Resistors
A resistor is a circuit element designed to
have a known resistance.
In circuit analysis, it is customary to write
the relationship between voltage and current
for a resistor as V = IR .
Remember that V actually stands for the

potential difference between the ends of the
resistor even though the symbol Δ is
omitted. Photo © Tony
Freeman/PhotoEdit
Slide 46
Resistors
Current in a resistor flows in the direction of the electric
field, which points from higher to lower potential.
Therefore, if you move across a resistor in the direction of

current flow, the voltage drops by an amount IR .
In a circuit diagram, the symbol represents a

resistor or any other device in a circuit that dissipates
electric energy.
A straight line _________ represents a conducting wire with

negligible resistance.
Slide 47
Internal Resistance of a Battery
Slide 48
Internal Resistance of a Battery
When the current through a source of emf is zero, the
terminal voltage —the potential difference between its
terminals—is equal to the emf.
When the source supplies current to a load (a light bulb, a
toaster, or any other device that uses electric energy), its
terminal voltage is less than the emf; there is a voltage drop
due to the internal resistance of the source.
If the current is I and the internal resistance is r , then the
voltage drop across the internal resistance is Ir and the
terminal voltage is
Slide 49
Two rules, developed by Gustav Kirchhoff (1824–1887), are
essential in circuit analysis.
Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that the

sum of the currents that flow into a junction
- any electric connection - must equal the
sum of the currents that flow out of the
Same junction.
The junction rule is a consequence of the law of conservation

of charge. Since charge does not continually build up at a
junction, the net rate of flow of charge into the
junction must be zero.
Slide 50
18.551 Junction RULES
KIRCHHOFF’S
• Slide
Kirchhoff’s Rule
Kirchhoff’s loop rule is an expression of energy conservation
applied to changes in potential in a circuit.
Recall that the electric potential must

have a unique value at any point; the
potential at a point cannot depend on
the path one takes to arrive at that
point.
Therefore, if a closed path is followed in a circuit, beginning

and ending at the same point, the algebraic sum of the
potential changes must be zero.
Slide 52
For 18.5
KIRCHHOFF’S
• any path
53in a circuit
Kirchhoff’s
Slide thatRULES
Loop Rule starts and ends at the same
point. (Potential rises are positive; potential drops are
negative.)
If you follow a path through a resistor going in the same
direction as the current, the potential drops (ΔV = − IR ). If
your path takes you through a resistor in a direction opposite
to the current (“upstream”), the potential rises (ΔV = + IR ).
For an emf, the potential drops if you move from the positive
terminal to the negative (ΔV = −ℰ); it rises if you move from
the negative to the positive (ΔV = +ℰ).
18.6 SERIES AND PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
Resistors in Series
When one or more electric devices are wired so that the
same current flows through each one, the devices are said to
be wired in series.
Slide 54
CIRCUITS
Resistors in Series
The circuit shows two resistors in
series. The straight lines represent
wires, which we assume to have
negligible resistance.
Negligible resistance means negligible

Voltage drop ( V = IR ), so points connected by wires of
negligible resistance are at the same potential .
The junction rule, applied to any of the points A – D , tells us

that the same current flows through the emf and the two
resistors.
Slide 55
CIRCUITS
Resistors in Series
Let’s apply the loop rule to a clockwise
loop DABCD . From D to A we move
from the negative terminal to the
positive terminal of the emf, so
ΔV = + 1.5 V. Since we move around the
loop with the current, the potential
drops as we move across each resistor.
Slide 56
CIRCUITS
Resistors in Series
Slide 57
18.6
For SERIES
any number AND PARALLEL
N of resistors connected in series,
CIRCUITS
Note that the equivalent resistance for two or more

resistors in series is larger than any of the resistances.
Slide 58
CIRCUITS
Emfs in Series
In many devices, batteries are connected in series with the
positive terminal of one connected to the negative terminal
of the next.
This provides a larger emf than a single battery can.
Slide 59
CIRCUITS
Emfs in Series
The emfs of batteries connected in this way are added just as
series resistances are added. However, there is a
disadvantage in connecting batteries in series: the internal
resistance is larger because the internal resistances are in
series as well.
Slide 60
CIRCUITS
Emfs in Series
Sources can be connected in series with the emfs in
opposition. A common use for such a circuit is in a battery
charger. In the figure, as we move from point C to B to A ,
the potential decreases by ℰ2 and then increases by ℰ1 , so
the net emf is ℰ1 − ℰ2 .
Slide 61
CapacitorsCIRCUITS
in Series
The figure shows two capacitors
connected in series. Although no
charges can move through the
dielectric of a capacitor from one plate
to the other, the instantaneous currents
I that flow onto one plate and from the other must be equal.
Why? The two plates of a capacitor always have charges of
equal magnitudes and opposite signs. Therefore, the
magnitudes of the charges on the two plates must change at
the same rate . The rate of change of the charge is equal to the
current. Viewed from the outside, the capacitor behaves as if
a current I flows through it.
Slide 62
CapacitorsCIRCUITS
in Series
We want to find the equivalent
capacitance Ceq that would store the
same amount of charge as each of the
series capacitors for the same applied
voltage.
With the switch closed, the emf pumps charge so that the
potential difference between points A and B is equal to the
emf. The capacitors are fully charged and the current goes to
zero. From Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
Slide 63
CapacitorsCIRCUITS
in Series
The equivalent capacitance is defined by

ℰ = Q/ Ceq .
Slide 64
18.6
For SERIES
N capacitors ANDinPARALLEL
connected series,
CIRCUITS
Note that the equivalent capacitor stores the same

magnitude of charge as each of the capacitors it replaces.
Slide 65
CIRCUITS
Resistors in Parallel
When one or more electrical devices are wired so that the
potential difference across them is the same , the devices are
said to be wired in parallel.
Slide 66
CIRCUITS
In the figure, an emf is connected to
three resistors in parallel with each
other. The left side of each resistor is
at the same potential since they are
all connected by wires of negligible
resistance.
Likewise, the right side of each

resistor is at the same potential. Thus, there is a common
potential difference across the three resistors.
Slide 67
CIRCUITS
Applying the junction rule to point A
yields
How much of the current I from the

emf flows through each resistor? The
Current divides such that the potential
difference VA − VB must be the same
along each of the three paths—and it must equal the emf ℰ.
From the definition of resistance,
Slide 68
CIRCUITS
Therefore, the currents are
Slide 69
CIRCUITS
The three parallel resistors can be replaced by a single
equivalent resistor Req . In order for the same current to flow,
Req must be chosen so that ℰ = IReq . Then I/ℰ = 1/Req and
Slide 70
18.6
For SERIES
N resistors AND
connected PARALLEL
in parallel,
CIRCUITS
Note that the equivalent resistance for two or more

resistors in parallel is smaller than any of the resistances
(1/ Req > 1/ Ri , so Req < Ri ).
Note also that the equivalent resistance for resistors in

parallel is found in the same way as the equivalent
capacitance for capacitors in series .
Slide 71
(a) Find the equivalent resistance for the two resistors in
The figure if R1 = 20.0 Ω and R2 = 40.0 Ω.
SERIES
18.6
• Slide 72 AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
(b) What is the ratio of the current through R1 to the current
through R2?
Strategy
Points A and B are at the same
SERIES
18.6
• Slide
potential; 73 AND
points C and DPARALLEL
are at the CIRCUITS
same potential. Therefore, the
voltage drops across the two
resistors are equal; the two
resistors are in parallel.
The ratio of the currents can be found by equating the

potential differences in the two branches in terms of
the current and resistance.
Solution
(a)
SERIES
18.6
• Slide 74 AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
(b)
(a) Find the equivalent resistance for the network of
resistors in the figure.
18.675 AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
SERIES
18.7
• Slide
(b) Find the current through the resistor R2 if ℰ = 0.60 V.
Strategy
Simplify the network of resistors in a series of steps.
SERIES
18.7
• Slide
At first, the only series or
parallel combination is the
two resistors (R3 and R4) in
parallel between points B and
C.
No other pair of resistors has

either the same current (for
series) or the same voltage drop (for parallel).
Strategy
We replace those two with an equivalent resistor, redraw the
18.6
SERIES
18.7
• Slide
circuit, and77 AND
look for new PARALLEL CIRCUITS
series or parallel combinations,
continuing until the entire
network reduces to a single
resistor.
Solution
(a)
SERIES
18.7
• Slide
Solution
(a)
SERIES
18.7
• Slide
Solution
(a)
SERIES
18.7
• Slide
Solution
(b) The current through R2 is I2.
SERIES
18.7
• Slide
Solution
(b) When I2 flows through an equivalent resistance
18.6
SERIES
18.7
of•6.0
Slide AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
82voltage
Ω, the
drop is 0.60 V.

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PART THREE Electromagnetism

The current (symbol I ) is defined as the net amount of

The SI unit of current, equal to one coulomb per second, is

What is the magnitude and direction of the current in the

Of the two vertical lines, the long line represents the

Emf originally stood for electromotive force , but emf is not a

Rather, emf is measured in units of potential (volts) and is a

Work done by an ideal battery:

Common battery sizes AAA, AA, A, C, and D all provide the

A larger battery can supply more energy by pumping more

In Chapter 21, we study alternating current (ac) circuits, in

The electrons have a nonzero average velocity called the

The number of electrons in the volume is N = nAvDΔt ; the

Therefore, the magnitude of the current in the wire is

Remember that, since electrons carry negative charge, the

can be generalized to systems in which the current carriers

The quantities v+ and v− are drift speeds —both are positive.

For many conductors, the I is proportional to Δ V .

It does not apply at all to some materials, whereas even

For an ohmic conductor, a graph of current versus potential

For some nonohmic systems, the graph of I versus ΔV is

The electrical resistance of a conductor of length L and

The equation assumes a uniform distribution of current

The SI unit for resistivity is Ω·m.

The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity [SI units

Pure water contains only the ions produced by self-ionization

Even a small amount of dissolved minerals dramatically

(b) If the copper wire is to be replaced by an aluminum wire

Two factors primarily determine the resistivity of a metal:

The second of these factors is sensitive to changes in

Therefore, as the temperature of a metal is raised, its

Here ρ0 is the resistivity at temperature T0 and ρ is the

The quantity a is called the temperature coefficient of

Remember that V actually stands for the

Therefore, if you move across a resistor in the direction of

In a circuit diagram, the symbol represents a

A straight line _________ represents a conducting wire with

Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that the

The junction rule is a consequence of the law of conservation

Recall that the electric potential must

Therefore, if a closed path is followed in a circuit, beginning

Negligible resistance means negligible

The junction rule, applied to any of the points A – D , tells us

Note that the equivalent resistance for two or more

This provides a larger emf than a single battery can.

The equivalent capacitance is defined by

Note that the equivalent capacitor stores the same

Likewise, the right side of each

How much of the current I from the

Therefore, the currents are

Note that the equivalent resistance for two or more

Note also that the equivalent resistance for resistors in

The ratio of the currents can be found by equating the

No other pair of resistors has

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