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Consumer Behavior
Roger D. Blackwell
Paul W. Miniard
James F. Engel
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mailed to the following address:
Permissions Department, Thomson
Business and Economics
5109 Natorp Boulevard
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800–423–0563
COPYRIGHT © 2006 Thomson South-Western, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo, and South-Western are
CHAPTER 15
Shaping Consumers’
Opinions
Opinion Formation
Opinion Formation
Opinion formation: the first time we
develop a belief, feeling, or attitude
about something
Opinion Formation
Opinion formation: the first time we
develop a belief, feeling, or attitude
about something
Comprehension: involves the
interpretation of a stimulus
When meaning is attached to the
stimulus
The meaning depends on what
occurs during stimulus processing
Opinion Formation
Stimulus categorization:
classifying stimulus using the
mental concepts and categories
stored in memory
The category to which a product
is assigned will affect how the
product is interpreted
Products and advertisements can
be miscategorized
Encouraging the Activation of
Particular Mental Categories
Opinion Formation
When consumers pay attention to
advertising, they may experience:
Cognitive responses: thoughts
evoked by the ad
Affective responses: feelings
evoked by the ad
Opinion Formation
Different advertisements require
different amounts of processing
Information-laden ads require
extensive processing, while simple
ads require less processing
As consumers invest varying
amounts of cognitive effort in
comprehending information, they
will have different interpretations of
advertisements
Opinion Formation
Classical conditioning
Opinion Formation
The meaning, feelings, and liking
associated with one object can be
transferred to another object by simply
pairing the two objects together
Opinion Formation
The unconditioned stimulus (US)
evokes an unconditioned response
(UR)
The unconditioned response can be
transferred to a conditioned stimulus
(CS) through simple association
Because this response arises from the
conditioning, it is called the
conditioned response (CR)
The Classical Conditioning Approach
to Influencing Consumer Attitudes
(US) Knives Sharpness (UR)
(CS) Product
(CS) Product Sharp flavor (CR)
Product Irrelevant Stimuli Can
Enhance Product Liking
Opinion Formation
The power of association in
shaping consumers’ opinions
It frees companies from the
constraints imposed by how well the
product actually performs
Simple association works without
requiring consumers to undertake
extensive thinking during processing
Opinion Formation:
The Content of Processing
The Central Process of Opinion

Formation
The Peripheral Process of
Opinion Formation
Formation
Central process: process in which
opinions are formed from a
thoughtful consideration of
relevant information
Formation
Central process: process in which
opinions are formed from a
thoughtful consideration of
relevant information
These opinions are very sensitive
to the strength or quality of the
relevant information presented
Ads describing brand advantages
lead to more favorable opinions
Formation
The persuasiveness of an ad’s
claims depends on the thinking
undertaken during processing
The extent to which opinions about
the advertised product were
affected by the ad claims depends
on the amount of product-relevant
thinking during processing
The Influence of Advertising Claims
Depends on the Thinking That Occurs
During Ad Processing
Favorability
of post-
message
product
opinions
Less More
Amount of relevant thinking during ad
processing
The Influence of Advertising Claims
Depends on the Thinking That Occurs
During Ad Processing
Stronger ad
Favorability claims
of post-
message
product
opinions
Weaker ad
claims
Less More
processing
The Central Process of
Opinion Formation
What is the potential for nonclaim
advertising elements to provide
product-relevant information?
When relatively little thinking is
done during processing, opinions
are unaffected by picture
manipulation
When more thinking occurs,
opinions are more likely to change
The Influence of Pictures That Convey
Product-Relevant Information also
Depends on Thinking During Processing
Favorability
of post-
message
product
opinions
Less More
processing
The Influence of Pictures that Convey
Product-Relevant Information also
Depends on Thinking During Processing
Relevant ad
Favorability picture
of post-
message
product
opinions
Irrelevant
ad picture
Less More
processing
Opinion Formation
Peripheral process: leads to the
formation of opinions without
thinking about relevant information
Opinion Formation
Peripheral process: leads to the
formation of opinions without
thinking about relevant information
Often attitude toward an ad is an
important determinant of
advertising effectiveness in
shaping opinions
Peripheral cues: stimuli devoid of
product-relevant information
Peripheral Pictures Become More
Influential When Product-Relevant
Thinking Declines During Ad Processing
Favorability
of post-
message
product
opinions
Less More
processing
Peripheral Pictures Become More
Influential When Product-Relevant
Thinking Declines During Ad Processing
Positive
irrelevant
Favorability picture
of post-
message
product Negative
opinions irrelevant
picture
Less More
processing
Opinion Formation
The attractive picture caused
subjects to develop more favorable
product opinions than did the
unattractive picture when thinking
about the product’s merits was
minimal
When thinking was more likely,
opinions were unaffected by the
pictures
Influence of Biased Processing
Other factors may bias or alter
information processing and cause
a change in how the information is
interpreted
Expectations and mood states may
bias information
The “Broken B” Stimulus: Prior
Expectations Affect Perceptions
Opinion Change
Opinion Change
Any subsequent modification in an
existing opinion represents
opinion change
Opinion Change
Any subsequent modification in an
existing opinion represents
opinion change
Whenever consumers have
opinions that may prevent them
from buying a product,
businesses may strive to change
consumers’ opinions
Opinion Change
The need to change consumers’
product opinions often arises for
mature products
Opinion Change
The need to change consumers’
product opinions often arises for
mature products
Sometimes changing consumers’
opinions requires improving or
changing the product itself
(updating its image, packaging or
claims)
Opinion Change
The differential threshold: the
smallest change in stimulus intensity
that will be noticed
Just noticeable difference (jnd)
Weber’s law: achieving jnd depends
on more than simply the absolute
amount of change
Consumers will perceive a $1.00
discount as significant if it is on a
$2.00 item, but not for a $100 item
The Difficulty of Changing
Consumers’ Opinions
Influencing opinions at the time
they are formed is easier than
changing preexisting opinions,
especially if they are confident
Consumers’ resistance to change
varies from opinion to the next and
depends on whether it is based on
direct or indirect experience
The Danger of Changing
Making changes can improve the
opinions of some but harm the
opinions of others
Changes in a products’ image may
attract one segment but alienate
another
Sacrifices are acceptable as long
as the losses are more than offset
by the new customers gained
How Businesses Shape
Product name
Product packaging
Colors
Price perceptions
Free product samples
Advertising
Product endorsers
Message framing
The Product’s Name Influences
Opinion Formation
The meaning derived from the name
may influence the opinion formed
about the product
When it conveys the wrong
meaning, sales can suffer
The Product’s Name Influences
Opinion Formation
Research on composite branding
shows the brand name appearing
first has the strongest influence on
attributes associated with that name
Descriptive names and labels have
also been seen to influence
consumers’ opinions and behaviors
Order of Composite Brand Names
Influences Product Opinions
The Influence of Descriptive
Names
Product Packaging Influences
Opinion Formation
Product packaging creates
expectations of the product and its
capabilities including impressions
of how much product is inside the
package
Packages are effective at drawing
attention particularly when they
have an unusual shape or are taller
and thinner as opposed to shorter
but wider packaging
Product Packaging Influences
Opinion Formation
Me-too product packaging, which
imitates packaging of a leading
brand, tries to create favorable
opinions with consumers
Stimulus generation occurs when,
for an existing stimulus-response
relationship, the more similar a
new stimulus is to the existing
one, the more likely it will evoke
the same response
Color Influences Opinion
Formation
Consumer opinions are often tied to
the product’s color (which conveys
meaning)
Color granules in detergents and
cold capsules serve as a visual cue
for products’ effectiveness
Pastel colored vacuum cleaners are
perceived to be lighter in weight
rather than dark colored tones
Color Influences Opinion
Formation
Colors of foods may change
expectations of flavor and also
change perceived flavor (vanilla
pudding that is colored chocolate)
Websites that use blue screens are
seen as more relaxing with faster
download times than those with
yellow screens
Price Perceptions
Nine-ending prices: when the last
digit of the price is the number 9, it
signals a lower price or is mentally
rounded down
Given a price of $19.99, it can be
viewed as $19.00 instead of $20.00
Price Perceptions
Reference pricing: information
about a price other than that
actually charged for the product
is provided
Price Perceptions
Reference pricing: information
about a price other than that
actually charged for the product
is provided
Price tag may carry actual price
and manufacturer recommended
price or price previously charged
Designed to encourage consumers
to form a favorable opinion about
the reasonableness of the price
Free Product Samples Influence
Opinion Formation
Free samples (gifting) can be
effective when introducing a new
product
They encourage trial and help
foster positive opinions
Impact of Free Samples on Purchase
Behavior: Free Samples Boost Trial
Purchasing
ts 16%
ien
ip
R ec
Percentage l e
of house- amp
e S
holds Fre 11.4%
buying tr ol
n
Co
Months 1 2 3 4 5 6
Based on eight brand composite
Impact of Free Samples on Purchase
Behavior: Free Sample-Induced Triers
Tend to Be Better Repeaters
ts 35.7%
ie n
c ip
Percentage R e
ple
of triers m
e Sa
repurchasing re 31.8%
F
tr ol
n
Co
Months 1 2 3 4 5 6
Based on eight brand composite
Advertising Influences Opinion
Formation
Advertising Appeals
Formation
Informational advertising appeals
attempt to influence consumers’
beliefs about the advertised product
Emotional advertising appeals try to
influence consumers’ feelings about
the advertised product
Formation
Utilitarian advertising appeals aim
to influence consumers’ opinions about
the advertised product’s ability to
perform its intended function
Value-expressive advertising
appeals attempt to influence
consumers’ opinions about the
advertised product’s ability to
communicate something about the use
of the product
Formation
Advertising Appeals
The appropriateness of using a
particular type of appeal depends
on what’s important to consumers
as they form their product opinions
Products can be valued for both
their utilitarian and value-expressive
properties
Formation
Advertising Claims
Formation
Stronger claims create more
favorable product opinions
Relevancy makes claims stronger
Strength also depends on what the
ad conveys about the product’s
characteristics and benefits
Formation
Ad claim substantiation is
important in opinion formation
Testimonials and product
demonstrations are effective ways
to substantiate claims
Formation
Search claims: claims that can be
validated before purchase by
examining information readily
available in the marketplace
Formation
Experience claims: claims that
require product consumption for
verification
Formation
Experience claims: claims that
require product consumption for
verification
Credence claims: claims whose
verification is impossible/unlikely
Formation
Objective claims focus on factual
information that is not subject to
individual interpretations
Subjective claims are ones that
may evoke different interpretations
across individuals
Objective claims are more
persuasive than subjective claims
Formation
Advertising Executional Elements
Other elements play a role in the
persuasion process:
Pictures
Camera angles
Typeface
Product Endorsers Influence
Opinion Formation
Endorsers can help shape product
opinions in several ways:
Association with brand may be
reason enough to buy it
Endorsers may embody meanings
that companies want attached to
their brands
Opinion Formation
Endorsers can help shape product
opinions in several ways:
Association with brand may be
reason enough to buy it
Endorsers may embody meanings
that companies want attached to
their brands
Match-up hypothesis: endorsers
are more effective when perceived
as appropriate for the product
Opinion Formation
Endorsers may give testimonials
and provide evidence of product’s
attributes (make-up on a model)
Endorser’s trustworthiness is
critical in increasing the
believability of the ad claim
Endorsers may serve as a
peripheral cue
Message Framing Influences
Opinion Formation
Gain-frame messages emphasize
what is attained by following a
message’s recommendation
Loss-frame messages emphasize
potential costs incurred by ignoring
a message’s recommendation
Opinion Formation
The loss-frame is more effective as
losses loom larger than gains (loss
aversion)
Loss-frame messages are more
effective when consumers are in a
positive mood state
Opinion Formation
Framing can also shape opinions
of the product’s affordability by
describing the product’s total cost
as smaller costs over time
Pennies-a-day strategy:
decomposes a product’s price into
its cost on a daily basis
Perceived Scarcity Influences
Opinion Formation
Creating the perception of scarcity
for a product can influence
consumer behavior
Scarcity effect: an object is viewed
as more desirable as its perceived
scarcity increases
Perceived Scarcity Influences
Opinion Formation
Can be done by communicating
how little of the product is available
or suggesting that demand exceeds
supply
Purchase Restrictions Influence
Opinion Formation
Limiting how much consumers can
buy may lead to an increase in
demand for the restricted item
Purchase restrictions: restriction is
interpreted as a signal of the deal’s
popularity and value, increasing its
attractiveness
Purchase Restrictions Influence
Opinion Formation
Consumers use the maximum
number of units identified in the
restriction as a starting point
and adjust downwards based on
other considerations (a deal’s
attractiveness, budget
constraints, etc.)
Moods Influences Opinion
Formation
Happy consumers are more likely
to interpret product information in
a mood congruent manner
Good Moods: Consumers in a
positive mood state have a greater
chance of forming more favorable
product opinions
Moods Influences Opinion
Formation
Salespeople can use humor in their
sales pitches or companies can
engage potential consumers in
playful activities with direct mail
promotions that create good
feelings and “warm up” prospects

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COPYRIGHT © 2006 Thomson South-Western, a part of The Thomson Corporation.

Thomson, the Star logo, and South-Western are

(US) Knives Sharpness (UR)

(US) Knives Sharpness (UR)

(US) Knives Sharpness (UR)

(CS) Product Sharp flavor (CR)

The Central Process of Opinion

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