Ethics in Business Research

• Standards, norms or guidelines

• Research shouldn’t harm the society rather should contribute in
developing it
• Debriefing participants
• Informed Consent
• Deception
• Rights to privacy
• Confidentiality
• Sponsors ethics
Sampling
• Sample:- the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations)
from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may
fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they
were chosen. 
• Population:-total collection of elements
• Population element:- individual participant
• Sample frame:- list of population elements
Types of Sampling

Types of sample

Probability Sampling: Nonprobability Sampling:

known non-zero chance of subjective and arbitrary
selection (in a random manner)
1. Probability Sampling: Probability Sampling is a sampling technique
in which sample from a larger population are chosen using a
method based on the theory of probability. For a participant to be
considered as a probability sample, he/she must be selected using a
random selection. 
2. Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is a sampling
technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the
subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random
selection.
1. Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling is a sampling
technique where every item in the
population has an even chance and
likelihood of being selected in the sample. 
Here the selection of items completely
depends on chance or by probability and
therefore this sampling technique is also
sometimes known as a method of chances. 
2. Stratified Random sampling
Stratified Random sampling involves a
method where a larger population can
be divided into smaller groups, that
usually don’t overlap but represent
the entire population together. While
sampling these groups can be
organized and then draw a sample
from each group separately.
3. Systematic Sampling
Systematic Sampling is when you
choose every “nth” individual to be a
part of the sample. For example, you
can choose every 5th person to be in
the sample.
4. Cluster Sampling
Cluster Sampling is a way to randomly
select participants when they are
geographically spread out.
Cluster sampling usually analyzes a
particular population in which the
sample consists of more than a few
elements, for example, city, family,
university etc. The clusters are then
selected by dividing the greater
population into various smaller sections.
 Advantages of Probability
Sampling
1. It’s Cost-effective: This process is both cost and time effective and a larger
sample can also be chosen based on numbers assigned to the samples and
then choosing random numbers from the bigger sample.
2. It’s simple and easy: Probability sampling is an easy way of sampling as it
does not involve a complicated process.
3. It non-technical: This method of sampling doesn’t require any technical
knowledge because of the simplicity with which this can be done.
 When to use Probability
Sampling
1. When the sampling bias has to be reduced: This sampling method is used
when the bias has to be minimum. The selection of the sample largely
determines the quality of the research’s inference. How researchers select
their sample largely determines the quality of a researcher’s findings.
Probability sampling leads to higher quality findings because it provides an
unbiased representation of the population.
2. When the population is usually diverse: When your population size is large
and diverse this sampling method is usually used extensively as probability
sampling helps researchers create samples that fully represent the
population.

Example: how many people prefer medical tourism over getting treated in
their own country, this sampling method will help pick samples from various
socio-economic strata, background etc. to represent the bigger population. 
3. To create an accurate sample: Probability sampling help researchers create
an accurate sample of their population. Researchers can use proven
statistical methods to draw accurate sample size to obtained well-defined
data.
Types of Non-Probability
sampling
1. Convenience sampling
2. Consecutive sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Purposive sampling
5. Snowball
1. Convenience sampling
× sampling technique used to create
sample as per ease of access,
readiness to be a part of the sample,
availability at a given time slot or any
other practical specifications of a
particular element. 
× Researchers use sampling techniques
in situations where there are large
populations to be tested as, in most
cases, testing the entire population is
practically impossible.
× Using this technique, they can
observe habits, opinions, and
viewpoints in the easiest possible
manner.
2. Consecutive sampling
× where samples are picked at the
ease of a researcher more like
convenience sampling, only with
a slight variation. 
× the researcher picks a sample or
group of people and conduct
research over a period of time,
collect results, and then moves
on to another sample.
3. Quota sampling

method in which researchers can

form a sample involving individuals
that represent a population and are
chosen according to traits or qualities.
Researchers can decide the trait as
per which the sample subset
selection will be conducted so that
the sample can be effective in
collecting data that can be
generalized to the entire population.
The final subset will be decided only
according to the interviewer or
researcher’s knowledge of the
population
 Quota Sampling
Advantages
1. Same as other non-probability sampling
methods, in quota sampling it is not possible to
calculate the sampling error and the projection
of the research findings to the total population
is risky.
2. While this sampling technique might be very
representative of the quota-defining
characteristics, other important characteristics
may be disproportionately represented in the
final sample group.
3. There is a great potential for researcher bias
and the quality of work may suffer due to
researcher incompetency and/or lack of
experience
Disadvantages
1. Quota sampling emerges as an attractive
choice when you are pressed for time,
because primary data collection can be
done in shorter time.
2. The application of quota sampling can be
cost-effective.
3. Quota sampling is not dependent on the
presence of the sampling frames. In
occasions where suitable sampling frame
is absent, quota sampling may be the
only appropriate choice available.
4. Judgmental/Purposive sampling
method in which researchers can form a sample involving individuals that
represent a population and are chosen according to traits or qualities.
Note:
Judgmental or Expert sampling is usually used in situations where the target
population comprises of highly intellectual individuals 
It is also used in situations where the sample selected using other sampling
methods need to be approved or filtered.
Used where there is time-constraint for sample creation and the authorities
involved would prefer relying on their knowledge
 The issue of sample size in
non-probability sampling is
rather ambiguous and
needs to reflect a wide
range of research-specific
factors in each case.
 Nevertheless, there are
some considerations about
the minimum sample sizes
in non-probability sampling
as illustrated in the figure
When to use NP Methods
1. This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait
exists in the population.
2. It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or
exploratory study.
3. It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is
almost limitless.
4. It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be
used to create generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
5. It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.
6. This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out
again using a randomized, probability sampling.
Advantages (Judgmental Sampling)

1. Consumes minimum time for execution: In this sampling approach,

researcher expertise is important and there are no other barriers involved
due to which selecting a sample becomes extremely convenient.
2. Allows researchers to approach their target market directly: There are no
criteria involved in selecting a sample except for the researcher’s
preferences. Due to this, he/she can communicate directly with the target
audience of their choice and produce desired results.
3. Almost real-time results: A quick poll or survey can be conducted with the
sample using judgmental sampling since the members of the sample will
possess appropriate knowledge and understanding of the subject.
5. Snowball Sampling
This is a sampling technique, in which existing subjects provide referrals to recruit
samples required for a research study.

Application:
if you are studying the level of customer satisfaction among the members of an
elite country club, you will find it extremely difficult to collect primary data
sources unless a member of the club agrees to have a direct conversation with
you and provides the contact details of the other members of the club
 Types of Snowball Sampling
1. Linear Snowball Sampling
The formation of a sample group starts with one individual subject providing information
about just one other subject and then the chain continues with only one referral from
one subject. This pattern is continued until enough number of subjects are available for
the sample.
2. Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling:
The first subject is recruited and then he/she provides multiple referrals. Each new
referral then provides with more data for referral and so on, until there is enough number
of subjects for the sample.
3. Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling
In this technique, each subject gives multiple referrals, however, only one subject is
recruited from each referral. The choice of a new subject depends on the nature of the
research study.
• https://
study.com/academy/lesson/research-variables-dependent-independe
nt-control-extraneous-moderator.html
• https://
study.com/academy/lesson/cross-sectional-research-definition-exam
ples-quiz.html
• http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/timedim.php
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0wDYLpIoTw
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yzqh6q6cqSc