GEOLOGY

IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
 GEOLOGY
Is the study of the Earth, the materials of
which it is made, the structure of those
materials, and the processes acting upon
them.
 SIGINIFICANCE
SIGINIFICANCE IN
IN C.E
C.E

• CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS ARE

CARRIED OUT OR IN THE GROUND.
 BRANCHES OG GEOLOGY
1. MINERALOGY

2. PETROLOGY

3. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

4. ….
The Crust, Mantle,
and Core
How do the forces within
the earth affect the
formations of the Earth’s
surface?
 The
The Crust,
Crust, Mantle,
Mantle, and
and Core
Core
• Earth is divided into four layers: the crust,
the mantle, the outer core, and the inner
core.
• Each layer is made up of different
materials.
• It takes 6,380 kilometers to get to the
center of the Earth’s inner core.
• Each layer has a different thickness.
 Thickness of Earth’s Layers
• Crust: 8-32 kilometers
• Mantle: 2900 kilometers
• Outer Core: 2250 kilometers
• Inner Core: 1300 kilometers
 The Crust
• The crust is the thin outer layer of Earth.
• Earth’s crust is made of two layers.
• The top layer is made of granite; the
bottom layer is made of basalt.
• The continents are made of both granite
and basalt.
• The ocean floors are made of basalt.
 The
The Mantle
Mantle
• The makeup of the mantle’s rocks is similar to
that of the crust.
• The Moho boundary is located between the crust
and the mantle.
• Currents of the mantle’s molten rock can move
whole continents and ocean floors.
• Molten rock from the mantle burst through the
crust to create islands and volcanoes.
• The top layer of the mantle is liquid rock that we
call the asthenosphere.
 The Outer and Inner Cores
• Earth’s core is made up of two parts: a
shell called the outer core and a sphere
called the inner core.
• Both cores are made up of the metals iron
and nickel.
• The outer core is liquid metal; the inner
core is solid metal.
• Tremendous pressure keeps the inner
core a solid.
Rocks and Minerals
 Properties of
of Minerals
Minerals
• A mineral is a naturally formed, inorganic
solid that has a crystal structure and a
definite chemical composition.
• Each mineral has its own set of specific physical
properties that can be used to identify it
(hardness, color, streak, luster, density, crystal
system, cleavage and fracture).
• An element is a substance composed of a
single kind of atom.
• A compound is two or more elements
combined so that the elements no longer
have their original distinct properties.
 Properties of
of Minerals
Minerals
• Naturally Formed- must form naturally
• Inorganic- cannot arise from materials that
were once part of a living thing
• Solid- always solid, with a definite volume
and a definite shape
• Crystalline Structure- particles must line up
in a pattern that repeats over and over again
• Definite Chemical Composition- always
contains certain elements in definite
proportions. NaCl (salt)
 Identifying Minerals
• Hardness- Mohs hardness scale ranks ten
minerals from softest to hardest.
• Color- Because of factors, such as impurities,
used only to identify a few minerals
• Streak- the color of a mineral in its powdered form
• Luster- how a mineral reflects light from its surface
• Density- the ratio of the mass to the volume of
a substance
• Crystal Systems- six groups of structures based
on the number and angle of the crystal faces
• Cleavage – splitting along smooth, flat surface
• Fracture- breaking apart along curved or irregular
surfaces
 Special Properties
• Some properties are particular to only a few
types of minerals:

• Fluorescence – glow under ultraviolet light

• Chemical Reactions – reacts to an acid
• Magnetism – natural magnets that attract iron.
• Taste – ex. Halite has a salty taste
• Optical Properties – some can cause a double
image
• Radioactivity – minerals that contain radium or
uranium
 Mohs Hardness Scale
• Talc 1 Softest known mineral
• Gypsum 2 fingernail can scratch it
• Calcite 3 scratched by copper penny
• Fluorite 4 easily scratched by steel knife
• Apatite 5 can be scratched by steel knife
• Orthoclase 6 can scratch window glass
• Quartz 7 can scratch steel
• Topaz 8 can scratch quartz
• Corundum 9 can scratch topaz
• Diamond 10 hardest known mineral
 Mineral
Mineral Structure
Structure
• A mineral is a naturally formed, inorganic solid
that has a define crystalline structure.
• Minerals may be either elements or
compounds.
• Elements are pure substances that cannot be
broken down into simpler substances by ordinary
means.
• A compound is a substance made of two or
more elements that have been chemically joined
together.
• A mineral that is composed of only one element
is called a native element.
 Crystals
• A crystal is a solid whose atoms, ions, or
molecules are arranged in a definite pattern.
• Crystals are solid, geometric forms produced
by a repeating pattern of atoms or molecules
that are present throughout the mineral.
• A crystal’s shape is determined by the
arrangement of the atoms or molecules within
the crystal.
• All minerals can be grouped into crystal
classes according to the kinds of crystals
they form.
 Two Groups of Minerals
• Minerals are divided into two groups based on
their chemical composition.
• Silicate minerals are minerals that contain a
combination of the elements silicon and oxygen
(quartz, feldspar, mica).
• Silicate minerals make up over 90% of the
Earth’s crust.
• Nonsilicate minerals are minerals that do not
contain a combination of the elements silicon
and oxygen ( copper, calcite, fluorite, corundum,
gypsum, galena).
 Rock
Rock Formation
Formation
• Scientists classify rocks by the way they
are formed.
• Rocks are composed of minerals and other
materials.
• Minerals are the building blocks of rocks.
• Rocks are classified into three (3) groups
based on how they are formed:
– Sedimentary rocks
– Igneous rocks
– Metamorphic rocks
 What materials are rocks made of?
• Rock is describe as a naturally occurring solid mixture of
one or more minerals and organic matter.
• Rocks are made of mixtures of minerals and other
materials, although some rocks may contain only a single
mineral. When studying a rock sample, geologists
observe the rock’s color and texture and determine its
mineral composition.
• Texture is described with terms based on grain size, grain
shape, and grain pattern. Most rocks are made up of tiny
particles of minerals or other rocks, which are called
grains. A rock’s grains give it its texture.
• There are three major groups of rocks: igneous rock,
sedimentary rock, and metamorphic rock. These terms
refer to how the rocks in each group were formed.
 The
The Rock Cycle
• The rock cycle is a series of processes in
which a rock forms, changes from one
type to another, is destroyed, and forms
again by geological processes.
• Rocks have been used by humans to
make tools and weapons and to construct
buildings.
 Illustrating
Illustrating the
the Rock
Rock Cycle
Cycle
• Igneous rock is formed when magma or
lava is cooled and hardens and solidifies.

• Sedimentary rock is formed by the process

of weathering, erosion, deposition and
cementation.

• Metamorphic rock is formed by heat,

pressure or chemical change beneath
Earth’s surface.
 Rock Classification
Classification
• Scientists classify rocks in detail by using
two important criteria – composition and
texture.
• Composition is the chemical makeup of a
rock; describes either the minerals or other
materials in the rock.
• Texture is the quality of a rock based on
the sizes, shapes, and positions of the
rocks grains.
 Classifying
Classifying Rocks
Rocks
I. Classifying Rocks - How Geologists Classify Rocks = When studying a rock sample, geologists observe the
rock’s origin, color and texture, and determine its mineral composition

A. Origin = 3 major groups of rocks

1. igneous rock = forms from the cooling of molten rock
a. lava = above the surface
b. magma = below the surface
2. sedimentary rock = forms in layers from other rocks, plants, and animals that
have been compacted and cemented together
3. metamorphic rock = formed when existing rock is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical
reactions
B. Texture = the size, shape, and pattern of the rock’s
grains
1. Grain Size
a. fine-grained (small)
b. coarse-grained (large)
2. Grain Shape
a. smooth and rounded
b. jagged
3. Grain Pattern
a. lie in flat layers
b. wavy, swirling patterns
c. looks like rows of multicolored beads
d. occur randomly
4. No Visible Grain
a. have no apparent grains
b. smooth, shiny texture
C. Mineral Composition =
1. mafic
2. felsic
 Origins
Origins of
of Igneous
Igneous Rock
Rock
• Igneous rocks are classified by their origin
of formation, texture of the grains, and
composition of the rock.
• Igneous rock forms when magma cools
and hardens.
• Three ways magma can form: heat/rise in
temperature, pressure released, rock
changes composition.
 Origins
Origins of
of Igneous
Igneous Rock
Rock
• Igneous rocks form from melted rock, the cooling
and hardening of magma and lava.
• Magma is molten rock beneath Earth’s surface.
• Lava is molten rock above Earth’s surface.
• When a volcano erupts, magma is released onto
Earth’s surface.
• Once above Earth’s surface, it is called lava.
• Common igneous rocks: granite, basalt, pumice,
obsidian.
 Composition
Composition and
and Texture
Texture of
of Igneous
Igneous
Rock
Rock
• Igneous rocks differ from one another in
what they are made of and how fast they
are cooled.
• Composition –
• Igneous rock that is rich in silicon and
light-colored are called felsic rock.
• Igneous rock that is poor in silicon and
dark-colored are called mafic rock.
• Texture –
– Fine-grained (small) = cools quickly
– Coarse-grained (large) =cools slowly
 Origins
Origins of
of Igneous
Igneous Rock
Rock
• Igneous rocks are classified by their origin of
formation, texture of the grains, and
composition of the rock.
• Igneous rock forms when magma cools and
hardens.
• Three ways magma can form:
– heat/rise in temperature
– pressure released
– rock changes composition
 Composition
Composition and
and Texture
Texture of
of Igneous
Igneous
Rock
Rock
• Igneous rocks differ from one another in what
they are made of and how fast they are
cooled.
• Composition –
• Igneous rock that is rich in silicon and light-
colored are called felsic rock.
• Igneous rock that is poor in silicon and dark-
colored are called mafic rock.
• Texture –
– Fine-grained (small) = cools quickly
– Coarse-grained (large) =cools slowly
 Origin
Origin of
of Formation
Formation
• Igneous rock formations are located below
and above Earth’s surface.

• Intrusive igneous rock – from magma

(below surface), coarse-grained (large
crystals), below Earth’s surface

• Extrusive igneous rock – from lava (above

surface), fine-grained (small crystals),
below Earth’s surface
 How do igneous rocks form?
• Igneous rocks are classified according to their origin, texture,
and mineral composition.
• Igneous rocks form either from lava, above the earth’s surface
or magma, below the earth’s surface. They also differ in texture
according to the size and shape of their mineral grains. They
differ in mineral composition depending on how much silica and
other minerals are present.
• Extrusive rock (basalt) forms from lava that has erupted onto
Earth’s surface.
• Intrusive rock (granite) forms when magma hardens beneath
Earth’s surface.
• Dark igneous rocks form from magma or lava low in silica
content (felsic).
• Light igneous rocks form from magma high in silica content
(mafic).
 Composition
Composition and
and Texture
Texture of
of Igneous
Igneous
Rock
Rock
• The longer it takes for magma or lava to cool, the
more time the crystals have to grow.
• The larger the crystals or grains, the more coarse
the texture of the rock.
• The less time liquid rock takes to cool, the less
time crystals have to grow.
• This type of rock will be fine-grained.
• Fine-grained rocks contain very small crystals or
grains.
• If the cooling is very rapid, it contains no crystals.
 Intrusive
Intrusive Igneous
Igneous Rock
• Igneous rock that forms below the surface
of the earth
• Below = intrusive
• Usually has coarse-grain texture
• Cools very slowly
• Common intrusive igneous rocks are
called Plutons.
 Extrusive Igneous Rock
• Igneous rock that forms above the earth’s
surface
• Extrusive = above
• Common around volcanoes
• Cools quickly
• Usually fine-grained texture
• Lava cools to form the ocean floor
 Uses of Igneous
Igneous Rock
Rock
• Most igneous rocks are hard, dense, and durable.
• Ancient Native Americans used obsidian for making
very sharp tools for cutting and scraping.
• Granite is used as a building material such as
decorative stonework, curbstones, and floors..
• Basalt is crushed to make gravel.
• The rough surface of pumice makes a good abrasive
for cleaning and polishing.
• Perlite is often mixed with soil for strating vegetable
seeds.
 Summary
• Igneous rock forms when magma cools
and hardens
• The texture of igneous rock is determined
by the rate at which the rock cools
• Igneous rock that solidifies at Earth’s
surface is extrusive. Igneous rock that
solidifies within Earth’s surface is
intrusive.
 How is sedimentary rock formed?
• Describe the origin of
sedimentary rock.

• Describe the three

main categories of
sedimentary rock.

• Describe three types

of sedimentary
structures.
 Forming
Forming of
of Sedimentary
Sedimentary Rock
Rock
• Sedimentary rocks are formed
when particles of other rocks or
the remains of plants and
animals are pressed and
cemented together.
• Rocks undergo weathering to
form sediment.
• Sediment is transported
(erosion), settled out of the
wind and water and deposited
somewhere.
• Usually after burial somewhere,
the deposited sediment
undergoes lithification.
 Forming
Forming of
of Sedimentary
Sedimentary Rock
Rock
• Lithification is the process that turns sediment
into a rock.
• If the sedimentary rock is buried deep in to the
crust under more and more sediment (layered),
often due to plate tectonics, the heat and
pressure causes metamorphism to occur.
• This transforms the sedimentary rock into a
metamorphic rock.
• Sediment (weathering) = erosion = deposited =
compaction = cementation.
• Common Sedimentary Rock: sandstone, shale,
and limestone.
 Forming
Forming of
of Sedimentary
Sedimentary Rock
Rock
• Erosion – occurs when running water or wind
loosen and carries away fragments of rock.

• Deposition- the process in which sediment

settles out of the water or wind carrying it.

• Compaction- the process that presses sediment

together.

• Cementation- the process in which minerals

crystallize and glue particles of sediment
together.
 Forming
Forming of
of Sedimentary
Sedimentary Rock
Rock
• Sedimentary rocks are formed when small
particles of rock and the remains of plants and
animals are compacted and cemented together.

• To form sedimentary rocks, sediment is loosened

and carried away by water and wind by erosion.

• The sediment then settles out of the wind and

water during deposition.

• The sediment begins to settle out and form

layers. As the layers stack up, they become
heavier until the weight squeezes the layers
tighter during compaction.
Composition of Sedimentary Rock
• Sedimentary rock is classified by the
way it forms.
• Clastic – formed from other rocks and
minerals (conglomerate, sandstone, shale)
• Chemical – forms when minerals
crystallize out of solutions (halite)
• Organic – forms from the remains of once-
living things (limestone).
 Types
Types of
of Sedimentary
Sedimentary Rock
Rock
• Geologists classify
sedimentary rocks
according to the type of
sediments that make up
the rock.
• There are three major
groups of sedimentary
rocks: clastic rocks,
organic rocks, and
chemical rocks.
 Clastic Rocks
• A clastic rock is a
sedimentary rock that
forms when rock
particles are squeezed
together.

• Examples of clastic
rocks:
– Shale
– Sandstone
– Conglomerate
– Breccia
 Clastic Rock: Shale
• Shale forms from tiny
particles of clay.

• Shale feels smooth, and

splits easily into flat
pieces
 Clastic Rock: Sandstone
• Sandstone forms from
the sand on beaches, on
the ocean floor, in
riverbeds, and in sand
dunes.

• Sandstone is formed
when small particles of
sand are pressed and
cemented together.
Clastic
Clastic Rock:
Rock: Conglomerate
Conglomerate and
and Breccia
Breccia
• Conglomerate is a
rock made up of large
particles with rounded
edges.

• Breccia is a rock
made up of large
fragments with sharp
edges.
 Organic Rocks
• Organic rock forms from
the remains of plants
and animals and are
deposit in thick layers.
• The term “organic” refers
to substances that were
once part of living things.
• Three important organic
rocks:
– Coal
– Limestone
– Chalk
 Organic Rock:
Rock: Coal
Coal

• Coal forms from the

remains of swamp
plants buried in water.

• Over millions of
years, they slowly
change into coal.
 Organic
Organic Rock:
Rock: Limestone
Limestone
• The hard shell of
living things
produces
limestone.

• Chalk forms from

sediments made of
skeletons of
microscopic living
things found in the
ocean.
 Chemical Rocks
• Chemical rock forms
when minerals that are
dissolved in a solution
crystallize.
• Chemical rocks can
also form when mineral
deposits left when seas
or lakes evaporate.
• Examples:
– Rock salt
– gypsum
 Sedimentary Rock Structures
• The most important feature of sedimentary rock is
stratification.
• Stratification is the process in which sedimentary
rocks are arranged in layers.
• Strata differ from one another depending on the kind,
size, and color of their sediment.
• Ripple marks (1) are made by the motion of wind and
water waves on lakes, oceans, rivers, and sand dues.
• Mud cracks (2) form when fine-grained sediments at
the bottom of a shallow body of water are exposed to
air and dry out.
• Rain-drop (3) impressions can be preserved in fine-
grained sediments, as small pits with raised rims.
 Uses of Sedimentary Rocks
• Sandstone and limestone are used as
building materials.

• The White House in Washington, D.C. is

built of sandstone.

• Limestone is also used to make cement.

 Summary
• Sedimentary rock forms from rock weathering
into sediment, erosion, deposition, compaction
and cementation.
• Sedimentary rock forms at or near the Earth’s
surface.
• Clastic sedimentary rock forms when rock or
mineral fragments are cemented together.
• Chemical sedimentary rock forms from solutions
of dissolved minerals and water.
• Organic (limestone) forms from the remains of
plants and animals.
 How is metamorphic rock formed?
• How are metamorphic
rocks formed?
• Describe two ways a
rock can undergo
metamorphism.
• Describe the
difference between
foliated and
nonfoliated
metamorphic rock.
 Metamorphic
Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks
• Metamorphic rock is formed when existing rock
is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical
reactions.
• They are classified by the arrangement of their
mineral grains.
• The two types of metamorphic rocks are called
foliated and non-foliated.
• Foliated is when the grains are parallel or
arranged in planes or bands.
• Non-foliated refers to where the grains are
arranged randomly.
 How Do Metamorphic Rocks Form?
• Heat and pressure deep beneath Earth’s surface
can change any rock into metamorphic rock.
• When a rock changes into metamorphic rock, its
texture, crystal structure, and mineral content change.
• The texture or mineral composition of a rock can
change when its surroundings change.
• If the temperature or pressure of the new environment
is different from the one in which the rock formed, the
rock will undergo metamorphism.
• Two ways that rock can undergo metamorphism are
by contact metamorphism and regional
metamorphism.
 Composition of Metamorphic Rock
• Metamorphism occurs when temperature and
pressure inside the Earth’s crust change.
• Minerals that were present in the rock when it
formed may not be stable in the new
temperature and pressure conditions.
• The original minerals change into minerals
that are more stable in these new
environment.
• Some metamorphic minerals form only at
certain temperatures and pressures.
• Common metamorphic rock: slate, schist,
marble, and gneiss.
 Textures of Metamorphic Rock
• Geologists classify metamorphic rocks by the
arrangement of the grains that make up the
rocks.
• Metamorphic rocks that have their grains
arranged in layers or bands are foliated.
• Examples
– Slate (from shale)
– Schist
– Gneiss (from granite)
 Textures of Metamorphic Rock
• Nonfoliated rock’s grains are arranged
randomly.
• Examples:
– Marble (from limestone)
– Quartzite (from sandstone)
• Metamorphic rocks are harder and more
dense than sedimentary rocks.
 Metamorphic
Metamorphic Rock
Rock Structures
Structures
• Metamorphic rock has features that tell you
about its history.
• In metamorphic rocks, these features are
caused by deformation.
• Deformation is a change in the shape of a
rock caused by a force placed on it.
• These forces may cause a rock to be
squeezed or stretched.
• Folds or bends in metamorphic rock are
structures that indicate that a rock has
been deformed.
 Uses of Metamorphic Rock
• Marble and slate are the two most useful
metamorphic rocks.
• Marble can be cut into thin slabs and easily
polished (Taj Mahal).
• Slate , because it is foliated, splits easily into
flat pieces.
• Slate is used for flooring, roofing, outdoor
walkways, or chalkboards.
• Marble and Slate both come in a variety of
colors.
 Summary…
• There are 3 major rock groups: igneous rocks
sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
• Igneous rocks form when molten rock cools and
hardens from magma or lava.
• Sedimentary rocks form from particles
deposited, pressed, and cemented together by
water and wind.
• Metamorphic rocks form from heat and pressure,
or a chemical change.
• Forces inside Earth and at the surface produce a
rock cycle that builds, destroys, and changes the
rocks in the crust.
EQ: How do the
lithospheric plates
affect Earth’s
surface?
Lesson 19
 Lithospheric Plates
• What features of Earth
are produced by the
movement of lithospheric
plates?

• What was Alfred

Wegener’s hypothesis?

• What is a scientific
hypothesis?

• What does the collision of

two continental plates
produce?
 Lithospheric Plates (8)
• Earth's surface is like a jigsaw puzzle in motion
• The pieces in the puzzle are made of large
chunks of Earth’s lithosphere
• Lithosphere is the solid outer layer of Earth
• It includes the crust and the top of the mantle
• The moving chunks of the lithosphere are called
lithospheric plates
• Continents and the ocean floor rest on these
plates
• Where these plates collide or separate, events
take place that shape Earth’s surface
 Continents in Motion (6)
• German scientist, Alfred Wegener, hypothesized
that all land masses on Earth had once made up
a single, giant continent.
• A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for one
or more observations.
• As millions of years passed, pieces of this giant
continent separated and moved to their present
positions
• This process is called continental drift
• Continents move about 2 cm a year
 Fossils (7)
• Fossils can show evidence of continental drift
• For example, mesosaurus was a reptile that
lived more than 250 million years ago
• It lived in freshwater lakes and rivers
• Scientists found its fossils in both South America
and Africa
• These continents are now separated by the salty
Atlantic Ocean
• How did their remains end up on both
continents?
Events Caused by Moving Plates (5)
• Scientists divide Earth’s lithospheric plates
into two groups-
– Less dense continental plates
– More dense oceanic plates

The collision of these plates produce different

events on Earth’s surface
 Oceanic Plate vs. Continental Plate
(3)
• When an oceanic plate runs into a
continental plate, the more dense plate
slides under the less dense plate

• This causes volcanic mountains like Mount

St. Helens in the state of Washington to
form.
 Oceanic Plate vs. Oceanic Plate (4)
• When two oceanic plates meet, one slides
under the other
• A deep trench in the ocean floor forms and
volcanic islands may pop through the
ocean’s surface.
• The Aleutian islands between Alaska and
Russia were formed this way
 Continental
Continental Plate
Plate vs.
vs. Continental
Continental Plate
Plate (5)
(5)

• When two continental plates collide,

neither slides under the other
• The plates buckle upward where they
meet
• This buckling produces mountain
ranges
• Example: the Himalayas in Asia
 Earthquakes! (5)
• Some plates get stuck as they push into
each other or slide past each other.
• When they become unstuck, a sudden jolt
happens.
• Energy is released and energy sends
waves through the ground.
• This causes the ground to shake…It’s an
earthquake!
 Earthquakes Part 2 (5)
• Earthquakes occur more frequently along
plate boundaries than anywhere else.
• This accounts for the “Ring of Fire” that
curves around the Pacific Ocean.
• The “Ring of Fire” is a belt where
volcanoes and earthquakes are very
common.
• The belt follows the borders of plate
boundaries.
Processes of Change
 Processes That Shape the Earth
• Certain geological processes make and
destroy rock.

• These processes shape the features of the

Earth.

• Theses processes also influence the type

of rock that is found in a certain area of
Earth’s surface.
 Processes That Shape the Earth
• Weathering is the process by which water,
wind, ice, and heat break down rock.
• Erosion is the process by which sediment
is removed from its source.
• Deposition is the process by which
sediment moved by erosion is laid down.
• Uplift is the process by which rock within
the Earth moves to Earth’s surface.
 EQ:
How does
weathering
occur?
 Weathering
Weathering
• Weathering is the process by which rock
materials are broken down by the action of
physical or chemical processes.
• Mechanical weathering is the breakdown of rock
into smaller pieces by physical means. (ice,
wind, water, gravity, plants, animals)
• Chemical weathering is the process by which
rocks break down as a result of chemical
reactions. Water, weak acids, and air can cause
chemical weathering.
6 Agents of
of Mechanical
Mechanical Weathering
Weathering
• 1. Ice – water seeps into cracks during
warm weather. When the temperature
drops, the water freezes and expands,
causing the ice to push against the sides
of the crack. This causes the crack in the
rock to widen.
– Abrasion – the grinding and wearing away of
rock surfaces through mechanical action of
other rock or sand pebbles.
– The three ways that can cause abrasion are
wind, water, and gravity.
 Three
Three Causes
Causes of
of Abrasion
Abrasion
• 2. Water – as rocks and pebbles roll along
the bottom of flowing water, they bump and
scrape against each other, causing these
rocks to become rounded and smooth.
• 3. Wind – wind blows sand and silt against
exposed rock eventually wearing away the
rock’s surface.
• 4. Gravity – rocks grind against each other
during a rock slide, creating smaller and
smaller rock fragments. Anytime one rock
hits another rock, abrasion takes place.
 Plants and Animals
• Some plants (#6) can easily break rocks. The
roots grow through existing cracks in rocks.
• The growth causes the root to expand, forcing
the crack to widen. The force can eventually
split the rock apart.

• 7. Animals that live in the soil (moles, prairie

dogs, insects, worms, gophers), cause a lot of
weathering. By burrowing in the ground, these
living creatures brake up soil and loosen rocks
to be exposed to further weathering.
 5 Agents of Chemical Weathering
• Common agents of chemical weathering are
water, acids, and air.
• These agents weaken the bonds between
minerals grains of the rock.
• 1. Water – can cause rock to be broken down
and dissolve. Can take thousands of years to
take place.
• 2. Air – the process of oxidation is a chemical
reaction in which an element (iron) combines
with oxygen, causing rust.
– (Weak Acids) - acid precipitation, acids in
groundwater, acids in living things.
 Three
Three Sources
Sources of
of Weak
Weak Acids
Acids
• 3. Acid Precipitation – rain, sleet, or snow that
contains a high concentration of acid. Normal
precipitation is acidic, acid precipitation
contains more acid than normal.
• 4. Acids in Groundwater – carbonic acid or
sulfuric acid reacts with rocks in the ground,
causing a chemical reaction, eating away at
the rock.
• 5. Acids in Living Things – Lichens produce
acids that slowly break down rock.
 Summary
• Ice wedging is a form of mechanical
weathering in which water seeps into rock
cracks and then freezes and expands.
• Wind, water, and gravity cause mechanical
weathering by abrasion.
• Animals and plants cause mechanical
weathering by turning the soil and breaking
apart rocks.
• Water, acids, and air chemically weather rock
by weakening the bonds between mineral
grains of the rock.
 Differential Weathering
• Differential weathering is a process by
which softer, less weather resistant rocks
wear away and leave harder, more
weather resistant rocks behind.

• Hard rocks weather more slowly than

softer rocks.
 The
The Shape
Shape of
of Rocks
Rocks
• Weathering takes place on the outer surface of
rocks.
• The more surface area exposed to weathering,
the faster the rock will be worn down.
• As the surface area increases, the rate of
weathering also increases.
• If a large rock is broken into smaller pieces,
weathering of the rock happens much faster.
• The rate of weathering increases because a
smaller rock has more surface area to volume
than a larger rock.
• More of the smaller rock is exposed to the
weathering process.
 Weathering
Weathering and
and Climate
Climate
• The rate of chemical weathering is faster in
warm, humid climates than cold, dry
climates because of oxidation.
• Oxidation happens when the temperature
is higher and when water is present.
• Water increases the rate of mechanical
(physical) weathering (ice wedging).
• Repeated changes in temperature (freeze,
thaw, freeze, thaw) is a major factor in
mechanical weathering.
 Weathering
Weathering and
and Elevation
Elevation
• Mountaintops weather faster than rocks at sea
level because they are exposed to more wind,
rain, and ice than rocks at sea level or lower
elevations.
• The increase in wind, rain, and ice increases the
effects of mechanical and chemical weathering.
This increase in elevation causes peaks of
mountains to weather faster.
• Gravity affects the rate of weathering:
– Steepness
– Rainwater
– Removal of sediment exposes new rock to weathering
– Abrasion
– Increased surface area of mountain
 Summary
• Hard rocks weather more slowly than
softer rocks.
• The more surface area of a rock that is
exposed to weathering, the faster the rock
will be worn down.
• Chemical weathering occurs faster in
warm, humid climates.
• Weathering occurs faster at high
elevations because of an increase in ice,
rain, and wind.
 The Source
Source of
of Soil
Soil
• Soil is a loose mixture of small mineral
fragments, organic matter, water, and air
that can support the growth of vegetation.
• Bedrock is the layer of rock beneath soil.
• Parent rock is the rock formation that is
the source of soil.
• Wind, water, and movements of glaciers
can transport or move soil from one place
to another.
 Soil
Soil Properties
Properties
• Soil is made from different-sized materials.
• Soil texture is the soil quality is based on
the proportions of soil particles.
• Soil texture can influence the ability of
water move through the soil.
• Soil structure is the arrangement of soil
particles.
 Soil
Soil Properties
Properties
• Some soils are rich in nutrients, some are
poor in nutrients.
• A soil’s ability to hold nutrients and to
supply nutrients to a plant is describe as
soil fertility.
• Humus is the dark, organic material
formed in soil from the decayed remains of
plants and animals.
 Soil Horizons
• Soil horizons are the horizontal
layers of soil.
• The top layer of soil is called
topsoil, containing more humus
than the other layers of soil, rich in
nutrients plants need to be healthy.
• Good topsoil is necessary for
farming.
 Summary
• Soil (loam) is formed from the weathering
of bedrock.
• Soil texture affects how soil can be worked
for farming and how well water passes
through it.
• The ability of soil to provide nutrients so
that plants can survive and grow is called
soil fertility.
 Soil Conservation
• Soil can be endangered, just like plants
and animals.

• It takes thousands of years for soil to form,

it is not easy to replace.

• Soil conservation is a method to maintain

the fertility of the soil by protecting the soil
from erosion and nutrient loss.
 The Importance of Soil
• Soil provides minerals and other nutrients
for plant life.
• All animals get their energy from plants.
• Soil also provides a place for animals to
live.
• The region a plant or animal lives is called
a habitat.
• Soil holds water for plants to get the
moisture or nutrients they need.
The Processes of Change
Lesson 18
 Processes of Change (5)
• Weathering and erosion wear down,
deposition fills in Earth’s surface.
• Weathering is the slow wearing away or
breaking down of objects exposed to
Earth’s atmosphere
• Two kinds of weathering act on Earth’s
surface
– Mechanical weathering
– Chemical weathering
 Mechanical Weathering (4)
• When objects are broken down into small
pieces but their chemical makeup doesn’t
change
• Wind and moving water are two main
causes of mechanical weathering
• Repeated changes in temperature (freeze,
melt, freeze, melt again)
 Chemical Weathering
Weathering (5)
(5)
• Material of an object is changed

• Produces underground caverns

• Statue of Liberty needed repairs because

of chemical weathering

• Examples:
– Rust
– Acid rain
 Erosion (5)
• The natural moving of material from one
place to another
• Erosion transports weathered rock material
• Causes of Erosion:
– Moving water
– Gravity
– Wind
– Glaciers (moving rivers of ice)
– Waves
 Deposition (5)
• Land torn down in one place is “deposited”
in another place
• Gravity can cause a landslide moving
mud, rock and soil down a hill
• Wind erosion can move sand and deposit
it in another area
• Glaciers (rivers of ice) scrape rocks off the
land and moves them downhill
 Deposition (5)
• Glaciers will stop moving and even retreat and
cut a steep U-shaped valley in the land
• Erosion caused by mountain rivers form V-
shaped valleys
• Hurricanes create waves that erode beaches
and cliffs
• Breaking of waves on a beach can wear it away.
The larger the waves, the faster is the rate of
erosion.
Lithospheric Plates
 Effects of Physical Processes
• Just as there was once a single great land
mass, there was also a single great ocean
around that land mass.
• The separate oceans we now know were
formed as the land masses separated.
• These separations produced amazing
features on the ocean floor, such as the
longest mountain range on Earth.
 Plate Tectonics Part 1
• Many physical processes have shaped
Earth’s surface.
• The physical process of plate tectonics
have shaped Earth’s oceans.
• Plate Tectonics describes how Earth’s
lithospheric plates move and how their
movements shape Earth’s crust.
• The continents and ocean floor of Earth
ride on 13 lithospheric plates
 Plate Tectonics, 2
• In the 1950s, scientists discovered that rocks on
the floor of the oceans were younger than rocks
on the continents.
• Harry Hess, an American geologist, suggested
that the sea floor was spreading.
• As it spread, from an opening in its middle,
magma from Earth’s mantle oozed from the
opening onto the surface of the ocean floor.
• When the magma came in contact with
seawater, it hardened into new rock.
 Plate Tectonics
• This rock formed a huge mountain range that
snakes through all of Earth’s oceans.
• This undersea mountain range is called the
midocean ridge.
• As distance from the opening increased, the age
of the rocks also increased.
• Because the spreading has been constant
throughout history, the formation of the South
Atlantic Ocean can be traced back to a time
when South America and Africa were once part
of the same landmass.
 Convection Currents, 1
• Lithospheric plates move due to convection
currents in Earth’s mantle.
• A convection current is a current formed by
heated liquid that moves along a circular path.
• Warm liquid moves upward and across a surface
because it is less dense.
• It cools at the surface, becomes more dense,
and moves downward.
• Then it warms again, becomes less dense, and
moves upward.
 Convention Currents, 2
• As long as heat is applied from below, the liquid will
move around and around in convection currents
• Heat from Earth’s mantle sets up convection
currents.
• These convection currents are made up of liquid
rock.
• The liquid rock rises to a place under the
lithospheric plates.
• The currents move in opposite directions, pushing
plates apart in one place, and together in another
place.
 EQ: What is the
composition of soil?
Lesson 22
 The Composition of Soil
• Soil is a combination of :
– Weathered rock
– Decayed parts of plants
– Decayed parts of animals
– Water
– Air
• It takes thousands of years to form.
• Without soil, life on Earth as we know it
would not be possible.
 Formation of Soil, 1
• Begins when exposed rock starts to weather
• Wind, moving water, and changes in
temperature break rock into tiny pieces
• Organisms like bacteria and fungi begin to
grow in the young soil
• These organisms produce acids that further
break down particles of rock
• This process produces minerals and the
nutrients plants need for growth
 Formation of Soil, 2
• Soon small plants take hold in the
new soil with their roots.
• Plants grow and die, along with
animals, and soil bacteria and fungi
break these organic materials down
• Organic material is a substance that
was originally part of a living thing
 A Soil Profile, 11
• Soil that has developed over thousands of
years is called mature soil.
• A soil profile is made up of three layers
called horizons.
 A Soil Profile, 22
• The top horizon, or A horizon, is very rich in
nutrients. It is called topsoil.
• The middle layer, or B horizon, is known as
subsoil. This is where you find clay and
minerals washed down by water
seeping through the A horizon
(topsoil)
Deep roots reach into the subsoil.
The last horizon, C, you will find solid bedrock
EQ: How do humans add
to the erosion process?
 Human Activity and Erosion
Natural agents of erosion:
– Wind
– Moving water
– Gravity (landslides)
– Waves
– Glaciers (rivers of ice)
Humans add to the erosion process:
– Logging
– Mining
– Farming
– Construction
 Logging
• People use trees to build homes, make
furniture and paper.
• In a method called clear-cutting, all the
trees in an area are cut down.
• Roots that used to hold the soil in place
die and decay.
• Rain washes the soil away.
• Soil has been robbed of nutrients and
minerals needed for plants to grow.
 Mining
• To get minerals from the ground, miners
strip away the surface of the land.
• Strip-mining and open-pit mining remove
plants from an area.
• Plants prevent soil erosion by flowing
waters and wind.
• Without plants, erosion speeds up.
• Thousands of years may pass before
enough topsoil builds up to support plant life.
 Farming
• Planting crops can benefit many people.
• Planting crops and an unexpected natural event
can produce a disaster.
• From 1930 to 1937, a drought struck the mid-
western part of the U.S.
• Grasses could have protected the soil during the
drought.
• Winds picked up the topsoil and blew it 100s of
miles eastward.
• This event is known as the “Dust Bowl.”
 Construction
• Building of roads, buildings, and
communities removes natural barriers,
such as plants, to erosion.

• Erosion speeds up and the land becomes

barren and ugly.

• Today, city officials consider erosion when

they plan new construction plans.
EQ: What are some ways
that humans can conserve
natural resources?
 Conserving Natural Resources
• Vital resources in danger:
– Soil has become unfit for growing crops
– Water unhealthy to drink, cook with, wash in
– Air has become polluted with substances

Natural resources can be kept healthy in two

ways:
– Conserved - saved before it turns bad
– Reclaimed - made healthy again after it
has turned bad
 Soil Conservation
• Methods used to keep topsoil from being
swept away by flowing water and wind.
• Rolls of trees, called windbreaks, are
planted along the edge of farmland to
block winds.
• In terracing, farmers cut level areas into
the sides of mountains to block or slow
down the downward rushing water.
 Soil Conservation
• To make land healthy again, people
can plant grasses that can live
through a drought.

• Grasses will die and decay and add

nutrients to the soil.

• The roots of the living grasses hold

the soil in place.
 Water Conservation
• The main threats to our supply of healthy water
are pollution and waste.
• To conserve water:
– Replace old showerheads and faucets with
water saving showerheads and faucets
– Replace old toilets with water-saving toilets
that uses less water per flush
– Turn off the faucet while you brush your teeth.
– Turn on the dishwasher only when you have a
full load of dishes.
 Water Conservation
• Water pollution comes from different
sources:
– Sewage treatment plants should not pour
untreated sewage into bodies of water.
– Factories and mines must be prevented from
dumping harmful chemicals into bodies of
water.
– Methods must be used to prevent fertilizers
from washing off of farmlands into bodies of
water.
 Air Conservation
• Air is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen, and 1% other gases.
• We need oxygen to live.
• Human activities put gases into the air that
can harm you.
• Air pollution describes air that holds
harmful gases.
• Harmful substances in air, water, or soil are
called pollutants.
 Air Conservation
• Two sources of air pollutants:
– vehicles that burn gasoline or oil
– Industries whose smokestacks pour
chemicals and bits of dirt into the air

Passed laws to protect air from pollution.

Put filters on smokestacks.

 Air Conservation
Laws require car manufactures to put in
exhaust systems.

State laws require the use of fuels in

vehicles that lessen the amounts of
pollutants that enter the air.

States require steps to reduce harmful

vehicle emissions.
Summary of Plate Tectonics