FUNGI

Chapter 31
Fungi
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Overview: Mighty Mushrooms
• Fungi
– Are diverse and widespread
– Are essential for the well-being of most terrestrial

ecosystems because they break down organic
material and recycle vital nutrients
Figure 31.1
• Concept 31.1: Fungi are heterotrophs that feed
by absorption
• Despite their diversity
– Fungi share some key traits

Nutrition and Fungal Lifestyles
• Fungi are heterotrophs
– But do not ingest their food
• Fungi secrete into their surroundings

exoenzymes that break down complex
molecules
– And then absorb the remaining smaller
compounds

• Fungi exhibit diverse lifestyles
– Decomposers
– Parasites
– Mutualistic symbionts

Body Structure
• The morphology of multicellular fungi
– Enhances their ability to absorb nutrients from
their surroundings
Reproductive structure.
The mushroom produces
tiny cells called spores.
Hyphae. The mushroom and its
subterranean mycelium are a continuous
network of hyphae.
Spore-producing
structures
20 m
Mycelium
Figure 31.2
• Fungi consist of
– Mycelia, networks of branched hyphae
adapted for absorption
• Most fungi
– Have cell walls made of chitin

• Some fungi
– Have hyphae divided into cells by septa, with
pores allowing cell-to-cell movement of
materials
• Coenocytic fungi
– Lack septa
Cell wall
Cell wall
Nuclei
Pore
Septum
Nuclei
(a) Septate hypha (b) Coenocytic hypha

Figure 31.3a, b
• Some unique fungi
– Have specialized hyphae that allow them to
penetrate the tissues of their host
Nematode Hyphae 25 m
(a) Hyphae adapted for trapping and killing prey
Fungal hypha Plant

cell
wall
Plant cell
Plant cell
(b) Haustoria Haustorium plasma
membrane
Figure 31.4a, b
• Mycorrhizae
– Are mutually beneficial relationships between
fungi and plant roots

• Concept 31.2: Fungi produce spores through
sexual or asexual life cycles
• Fungi propagate themselves
– By producing vast numbers of spores, either
sexually or asexually

• The generalized life cycle of fungi
Key
Haploid (n) Heterokaryotic

stage
Heterokaryotic
(unfused nuclei from PLASMOGAMY
different parents) (fusion of cytoplasm)
Diploid (2n)
KARYOGAMY
(fusion of nuclei)
Spore-producing
structures
SEXUAL Zygote
REPRODUCTION
Spores
ASEXUAL Mycelium
REPRODUCTION
MEIOSIS
GERMINATION
GERMINATION
Spore-producing
structures
Spores
Figure 31.5
Sexual Reproduction
• The sexual life cycle involves
– Cell fusion, plasmogamy
– Nuclear fusion, karyogamy
• An intervening heterokaryotic stage

– Occurs between plasmogamy and karyogamy
in which cells have haploid nuclei from two
parents

• The diploid phase following karyogamy
– Is short-lived and undergoes meiosis,
producing haploid spores

Asexual Reproduction
• Many fungi can reproduce asexually

• Many fungi that can reproduce asexually
– Grow as mold, sometimes on fruit, bread, and
other foods
2.5 m
Figure 31.6
• Other asexual fungi are yeasts
– That inhabit moist environments
– Which produce by simple cell division

10 m
Parent cell
Bud
Figure 31.7
• Many molds and yeasts have no known sexual
stage
– Mycologists have traditionally called these
deuteromycetes, or imperfect fungi

• Concept 31.3: Fungi descended from an
aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist
• Systematists now recognize Fungi and
Animalia as sister kingdoms
– Because fungi and animals are more closely
related to each other than they are to plants or
other eukaryotes

The Origin of Fungi
• Molecular evidence
– Supports the hypothesis that fungi and animals
diverged from a common ancestor that was
unicellular and bore flagella
• Fungi probably evolved

– Before the colonization of land by multicellular
organisms

• The oldest undisputed fossils of fungi
– Are only about 460 million years old
50 m
Figure 31.8
The Move to Land
• Fungi were among the earliest colonizers of
land
– Probably as symbionts with early land plants

• Concept 31.4: Fungi have radiated into a
diverse set of lineages
• The phylogeny of fungi
– Is currently the subject of much research
• Molecular analysis
– Has helped clarify the evolutionary
relationships between fungal groups, although
there are still areas of uncertainty

• The phylogeny of fungi
Zygote Arbuscular Sac Club
Chytrids fungi mycorrhizal fungi fungi
fungi
Basidiomycota
Glomeromycota
Zygomycota
Ascomycota
Chytridiomycota
Figure 31.9
• A review of fungal phyla
Table 31.1
Chytrids
• Fungi classified in the phylum Chytridiomycota,
or chytrids
– Are found in freshwater and terrestrial habitats
– Can be saprobic or parasitic

• Chytrids are unique among fungi
– In having flagellated spores, called zoospores
25 m
Hyphae
Flagellum
4 m
Figure 31.10
• Until recently, systematists thought that
– Fungi lost flagella only once in their history
• Molecular data
– Indicate that some “chytrids” are actually more

closely related to another fungal group, the
zygomycetes
Glomeromycetes,
ascomycetes, and
Some Zygomycetes and other chytrids
basidiomycetes
chytrids
Key
Figure Common ancestor Loss of
flagella
31.11
Zygomycetes
• Fungi in the phylum Zygomycota, the
zygomycetes
– Exhibit a considerable diversity of life histories
– Include fast-growing molds, parasites, and

commensal symbionts
– Are named for their sexually produced
zygosporangia

• The life cycle of Rhizopus stolonifer
– Is fairly typical of zygomycetes

Mycelia have
1
various mating types Neighboring mycelia of different
2
(here designated +, Key
mating types form hyphal extensions
with red nuclei, and , called gametangia, each walled off Haploid (n)
with blue nuclei). Heterokaryotic (n + n)

around several haploid nuclei by a septum.
Diploid
A heterokaryotic
3
zygosporangium
forms, containing
multiple haploid
nuclei from the two

PLASMOGAMY
Rhizopus parents.
Mating
growing Gametangia with
Mating
type (+)
on bread haploid nuclei
type ()
100 m
The spores Young
8
Mycelia can also reproduce germinate and
9 zygosporangium
asexually by forming sporangia grow into new (heterokaryotic)
that produce genetically identical haploid spores. SEXUAL
mycelia.
REPRODUCTION
Dispersal and
Sporangia The sporangium
7 Zygosporangium
germination KARYOGAMY
disperses genetically (heterokaryotic)
diverse, haploid spores.
Diploid This cell develops a
Sporangium 4
nuclei rough, thick-walled
ASEXUAL
MEIOSIS coating that can resist
REPRODUCTION
dry environments and
Dispersal and
other harsh conditions
germination
for months.
50 m Mycelium
When conditions are favourable,

5
karyogamy occurs, followed by
The zygosporangium
6 meiosis.
then breaks dormancy,
Figure 31.12 germinating into a
short sporangium.

• Some zygomycetes, such as Pilobolus
– Can actually “aim” their sporangia toward
conditions associated with good food sources
Figure 31.13 0.5 mm

• Zygosporangia, which are resistant to freezing
and drying
– Are capable of persisting through unfavorable
conditions
– Can undergo meiosis when conditions improve

Microsporidia
• Microsporidia
– Are unicellular parasites of animals and
protists
– Are now classified as zygomycetes
10 m
Host cell
nucleus
Developing
microsporidian
Spore
Figure 31.14
Glomeromycetes
• Fungi assigned to the phylum Glomeromycota
– Were once considered zygomycetes
– Are now classified in a separate clade

• All glomeromycetes
– Form a distinct type of endomycorrhizae called
arbuscular mycorrhizae
2.5 m
Figure 31.15
Ascomycetes
• Fungi in the phylum Ascomycota
– Are found in a variety of marine, freshwater,
and terrestrial habitats
– Are defined by the production of sexual spores
in saclike asci, which are usually contained in
fruiting bodies called ascocarps

• Ascomycetes
– Vary in size and complexity from unicellular
yeasts to elaborate cup fungi and morels
(a) The cup-shaped ascocarps (fruiting bodies)

of Aleuria aurantia give this species its
common name: orange peel fungus.
(b) The edible ascocarp of
Morchella esculenta, the
succulent morel, is often
found under trees in orchards.
10 m
(c) Tuber melanosporum is a truffle, an ascocarp that grows (d) Neurospora crassa feeds as
underground and emits strong odors. These ascocarps
Figure 31.16a–d
a mold on bread and other
have been dug up and the middle one sliced open. food (SEM).

• Ascomycetes reproduce
– Asexually by producing enormous numbers of
asexual spores called conidia

• The life cycle of Neurospora crassa, an
ascomycete
7 Ascomycete mycelia 1 Neurospora can reproduce Key
Conidia;
can also reproduce sexually by producing specialized
mating type () Haploid (n)
asexually by producing hyphae. Conidia of the opposite
haploid conidia. mating type fuse to these hyphae. Dikaryotic (n  n)
Diploid (2n)
Dispersal
Germination
Mating
ASEXUAL type ()
REPRODUCTION Mycelium
PLASMOGAMY
2 A dikaryotic
ascus develops.
Ascogonium Ascus
(dikaryotic)
Mycelia
Conidiophore
Dikaryotic
hyphae
SEXUAL
Germination REPRODUCTION KARYOGAMY
Dispersal 3 Karyogamy
Diploid nucleus occurs within the
Eight (zygote) ascus, producing a
6 The developing asci Asci ascospores diploid nucleus.
are contained in an
ascocarp. The ascospores
are discharged forcibly
from the asci through an
Four
opening in the ascocarp.
haploid
Germinating ascospores
nuclei
give rise to new mycelia. MEIOSIS
Ascocarp
5 Each haploid nucleus divides 4 The diploid nucleus

divides by meiosis, yielding
once by mitosis, yielding eight
four haploid nuclei.
Figure 31.17 nuclei. Cell walls develop around
the nuclei, forming ascospores (LM).

Basidiomycetes
• Fungi in the phylum Basidiomycota
– Include mushrooms and shelf fungi
– Are defined by a clublike structure called a

basidium, a transient diploid stage in the life
cycle

• Basidiomycetes
(b) Maiden veil fungus (Dictyphora),

a fungus with an odor like rotting
meat
(a) Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), a

common species in conifer forests in
the northern hemisphere
(d) Puffballs emitting spores
(c) Shelf fungi, important decomposers of

Figure 31.18a–d wood

• The life cycle of a basidiomycete
– Usually includes a long-lived dikaryotic
mycelium, which can erect its fruiting structure,
a mushroom, in just a few hours
Figure 31.19
• The life cycle of a mushroom-forming
basidiomycete
2 A dikaryotic mycelium forms,
1 Two haploid mycelia growing faster then, and ultimately
of different mating types crowding out, the haploid parental mycelia.
undergo plasmogamy.
Dikaryotic 3 Environmental
PLASMOGAMY cues such as rain or
mycelium
temperature changes
induce the dikaryotic
mycelium to form
8 In a suitable compact masses that
environment, the Mating
develop into
basidiospores type ()
basidiocarps
germinate and Mating (mushrooms, in this
grow into type () case).
short-lived Haploid
haploid mycelia. mycelia Gills lined
SEXUAL with basidia
REPRODUCTION Basidiocarp
(dikaryotic)
Dispersal
and
7 When mature, germination
the basidiospores
are ejected, fall
from the cap, and Basidiospores
are dispersed by
the wind.
Basidium with Basidia
four appendages (dikaryotic)
Basidium Basidium containing

four haploid nuclei 4 The basidiocarp
gills are lined with
KARYOGAMY terminal dikaryotic
cells called basidia.
MEIOSIS
6 Each diploid nucleus

yields four haploid
nuclei. Each basidium
Key
grows four appendages, Diploid
and one haploid nucleus nuclei 5 Karyogamy in the Haploid (n)
enters each appendage basidia produces diploid
1 m Basidiospore Dikaryotic (n  n)
and develops into a nuclei, which then
Figure 31.20 basidiospore (SEM). undergo meiosis. Diploid (2n)

• Concept 31.5: Fungi have a powerful impact on
ecosystems and human welfare

Decomposers
• Fungi are well adapted as decomposers of
organic material
– Performing essential recycling of chemical
elements between the living and nonliving
world

Symbionts
• Fungi form symbiotic relationships with
– Plants, algae, and animals

Mycorrhizae
• Mycorrhizae
– Are enormously important in natural
ecosystems and agriculture
– Increase plant productivity
EXPERIMENT Researchers grew soybean plants in soil treated with fungicide (poison that kills fungi) to
prevent the formation of mycorrhizae in the experimental group. A control group was exposed to fungi that formed
mycorrhizae in the soybean plants’ roots.
RESULTS
RESULTS The soybean plant on the left is typical of the experimental group. Its
stunted growth is probably due to a phosphorus deficiency. The taller, healthier plant on
the right is typical of the control group and has mycorrhizae.
CONCLUSION These results indicate that the presence of mycorrhizae benefits a soybean
plant and support the hypothesis that mycorrhizae enhance the plant’s ability to take up
Figure 31.21 phosphate and other needed minerals.

Fungus-Animal Symbiosis
• Some fungi share their digestive services with
animals
– Helping break down plant material in the guts
of cows and other grazing mammals

• Many species of ants and termites
– Take advantage of the digestive power of fungi
by raising them in “farms”
Figure 31.22
Lichens
• Lichens
– Are a symbiotic association of millions of
photosynthetic microorganisms held in a mass
of fungal hyphae
(a) A fruticose (shrub-like) lichen
Figure 31.23a–c (b) A foliose (leaf-like) lichen (c) Crustose (crust-like) lichens

• The fungal component of a lichen
– Is most often an ascomycete
• Algae or cyanobacteria
– Occupy an inner layer below the lichen surface

Ascocarp of fungus
Soredia
Fungal Algal
hyphae layer
Algal cell
Fungal hyphae
10 m
Figure 31.24
Pathogens
• About 30% of known fungal species
– Are parasites, mostly on or in plants
(a) Corn smut on corn (b) Tar spot fungus on maple leaves (c) Ergots on rye
Figure 31.25a–c

• Some of the fungi that attack food crops
– Are toxic to humans

Practical Uses of Fungi
• Humans eat many fungi
– And use others to make cheeses, alcoholic
beverages, and bread

• Antibiotics produced by fungi
– Treat bacterial infections
Staphylococcus
Penicillium
Zone of
inhibited
growth
Figure 31.26
• Genetic research on fungi
– Is leading to applications in biotechnology

FUNGI

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Chapter 31

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

– Are diverse and widespread

– Are essential for the well-being of most terrestrial

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Fungi secrete into their surroundings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The mushroom produces

tiny cells called spores.

Hyphae. The mushroom and its

subterranean mycelium are a continuous

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(a) Septate hypha (b) Coenocytic hypha

(a) Hyphae adapted for trapping and killing prey

Fungal hypha Plant

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Haploid (n) Heterokaryotic

– Nuclear fusion, karyogamy

• An intervening heterokaryotic stage

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Which produce by simple cell division

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Fungi probably evolved

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Can be saprobic or parasitic

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Fungi lost flagella only once in their history

– Indicate that some “chytrids” are actually more

Figure Common ancestor Loss of

– Include fast-growing molds, parasites, and

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Is fairly typical of zygomycetes

with blue nuclei). Heterokaryotic (n + n)

nuclei from the two

When conditions are favourable,

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 31.13 0.5 mm

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Are now classified in a separate clade

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(a) The cup-shaped ascocarps (fruiting bodies)

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

5 Each haploid nucleus divides 4 The diploid nucleus

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Are defined by a clublike structure called a

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(b) Maiden veil fungus (Dictyphora),

(a) Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), a

(d) Puffballs emitting spores

(c) Shelf fungi, important decomposers of

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Basidium Basidium containing