CHAPTER 11

Learning and Cognition in

the Content Areas

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 Learning Goals
1. Distinguish between expert knowledge
and pedagogical content knowledge.
2. Explain how reading develops and some
useful approaches to teaching reading.
3. Describe how writing develops and some
useful approaches to teaching writing.

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 Learning Goals, cont’d
4. Characterize how mathematical thinking
develops and identify some issues
related to teaching mathematics.
5. Identify some challenges and strategies
related to teaching children how to think
scientifically.
6. Summarize how learning in social
studies is becoming more constructivist.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

 Expert and Pedagogical Content
Knowledge

Expert knowledge means an

excellent knowledge about the
content of a particular
discipline.
Pedagogical content
knowledge is knowledge about
how to effectively teach a
particular discipline.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

 Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas

Reading

A Developmental Social Constructivist

Model of Reading Approaches

Language Rule Cognitive

Systems Approaches

Approaches to
Reading

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Developmental Model of Reading

Stage 0 - Left to right progression, identification

of letters of the alphabet, how to write their
names

Stage 1 (grades 1–2) - Learn to sound out words

Stage 2 (grades 2–3) - Retrieve individual words

and develop mechanical skills

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Developmental Model of Reading

Stage 3 (grades 4–8) - Read to learn,

understand various perspectives

Stage 4 (high school) - Develop the ability to

understand material written from different
perspectives and discuss

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 Language Rule Systems
Phonology Sound system of a language

Morphology Units of meaning involved in word

formation

Syntax Rules for combining words into

acceptable phrases/sentences

Semantics Meaning of words and sentences

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Teaching Reading
Reading is the ability to
understand written discourse.

Phonics Whole-
Approach Language
Approach

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 Cognitive Approaches
Decoding and Metacognitive strategies:
Comprehending - Overview of text
- Seek and relate important
ideas
- Determine word meaning
- Monitor comprehension
- Understand relationships
- Recognize the necessity to
reread
- Adjust pace based on
difficulty of material
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Cognitive Approaches
Constructing Reader uses background
Meaning knowledge and knowledge of
words to construct, not just to
decode.

Develop Expert The transactional strategy

Strategies instruction approach allows
students to learn strategies to
monitor reading and to
summarize information.

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Social Constructivist Approaches
Meaning is “socially negotiated” (reader’s
contribution, context, and purpose).
Assumptions:
1. The social context plays an important role in
reading.
2. Knowledgeable readers in the culture assist
less knowledgeable
readers.

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Social Constructivist Approaches
Reciprocal teaching, in which teachers
explain and model, gradually assuming a
less active role.
Book Clubs
School/Family/Community Connections

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Comparing Approaches to
Reading Instruction

Reciprocal group takes

turns with the teacher.
Explicit instruction
group listens and
completes paper-pencil
activities.
Modeling group
observes teacher’s use of
strategies.
Control group was given
no reading strategy
information.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas

Writing

Developmental Social Constructivist

Changes Approaches

Cognitive
Approaches

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Developmental Changes in
Writing

Age 2–3 Writing emerges out of scribbles.

Age 4 In the United States, children can usually

reproduce their name.

Age 5 Reproduce letters and copy short words.

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Developmental Changes in
Writing

Early Elementary School: Distinguish letter

characteristics, continued reversal of letters
(b-d;p-q). Criticism of printing skills should be
minimized.

Middle and High School: Students develop

sophisticated methods of organizing ideas.

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 Cognitive Approaches to
Teaching Writing

Planning Outlining and organizing

content information.

Problem Solving Writers establish goals that

include the purpose, the
audience, and the role of the
writer.
Revising Multiple drafts, getting
feedback, detecting and
correcting errors.

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 Cognitive Approaches to
Teaching Writing

Metacognition
Knowledge of
planning and
organization and
being receptive to
feedback in order
to become a good
writer

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 Social Constructivist Approaches
to Teaching Writing
Assumptions: Approaches:
1. The social context  Create a social context
plays an important that encourages writing
role in writing.  Meaningful student-
2. Knowledgeable teacher conferences that
writers in the culture promote writing about
assist less personal experiences
knowledgeable  Shared rich peer
writers. collaboration and
family/peer connections
produce new insights
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Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas

Mathematics

Developmental Technology and

Changes Math Instruction

Controversy in Some Constructivist

Math Education Principles

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Developmental Changes in
Mathematics

Pre-K–Grade 2 Count past 20, add/subtract

single digits

Grades 3–5 Multiplicative reasoning,

equivalence, and computational fluency

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Developmental Changes in
Mathematics

Grades 6–8 Algebra and geometry, quantitative

life solutions

Grades 9–12 Students should experience

algebra, geometry, statistics, probability, and
discrete mathematics

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Constructivist Principles for
Teaching Mathematics

With appropriate
Make math realistic prior knowledge,
and interesting make students
stretch their minds
to solve problems.

Make math curriculum

socially interactive

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 Crack the Case
The Constructivist Math Classroom

1. What are the issues in this case?

2. The students in first and second grade seem to be
flourishing in this curriculum, while the older
students are struggling. Why might this be? Tie
your answer to a constructivist principle.
3. How should the teachers address parental
concerns regarding the new curriculum?
4. How should they address the concerns of the
algebra teacher?
5. What can the teachers do to help their students at
this point?

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas

Science

Constructivist
Science Education
Teaching Strategies

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Constructivist Strategies for
Teaching Science

Activities
to help
students
see how In-depth
Exploratio science experience
n of works s in a
everyday limited
science number of
problems content
areas

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 Enter the Debate
Should teachers emphasize the scientific process
or scientific facts in science instruction?
PROCESS FACTS

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Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas

Social Studies

What Is Social Constructivist

Studies? Approaches

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 Social Studies Themes
(National Council for the Social Sciences, 2000)

Individuals, Individual
Groups, and Culture Development/
Institutions Identity

People, Power,
Places, and Authority,
Environments Governance
Social Studies
Time, Production,
Continuity, Distribution,
and Change Consumption
Science,
Global Technology, Civic Ideals
Connections and Society and Practices

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Reflection & Observation
Reflection:
How has working with others affected
your learning experiences? Why?

Observation:
Based on what you observe in this
video clip, what do you believe are
the teacher’s goals for his students?
What cognitive and social skills are
these students using?

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.