CHAPTER 8

The Information-Processing
Approach

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 Learning Goals
1. Describe the information-processing approach.
2. Characterize attention and summarize how it
changes during development.
3. Discuss memory in terms of encoding, storage,
and retrieval.
4. Draw some lessons about learning from the way
experts think.
5. Explain the concept of metacognition and identify
some ways to improve children’s metacognition.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

 The Information-Processing
Approach

The Nature of the

Information-Processing
Approach

Information,
Memory, and Cognitive Mechanisms of
Thinking Resources: Change
Capacity and Speed
of Processing
Information

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 Characteristics of Information
Processing
The information-processing approach to
learning emphasizes that children manipulate
information, monitor it, and strategize about it.

Thinking: To perceive, encode, represent, and store

information from the world
Self-modification: Represented by metacognition,
“knowing about knowing”
Change mechanisms:
Encoding – Getting information into memory
Automaticity – Processing information with little effort
Strategy Construction – Discovering new processing
procedures
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The Information-Processing
Approach

Attention

What Is Developmental
Attention? Changes

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What Is Attention?

Attention is the focusing of mental

processes
 Sustained attention
 Selective attention
 Divided attention

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 Getting Students to Pay Attention
Encourage
attention and Use cues and
minimize Be gestures
distraction interesting for important
material

Focus on active learning

and be aware of
individual differences

Use media and technology to

make learning enjoyable

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The Information-Processing
Approach

Memory

What Is Retrieval and

Memory? Forgetting

Encoding Storage

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Enter the Debate
Should teachers require students to
engage in rote memorization?
YES NO

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 Memory
…is the retention of information over time.

ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL

Getting Taking
Retaining information
information information
into memory out of
over time storage

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 Encoding Strategies

REHEARSAL DEEP PROCESSING

Consistent repetition of Deeper processing,
information over time better memory

ATTENTION
Concentrate and focus
CONSTRUCTING ORGANIZATION
IMAGES Aided by chunking

ELABORATION
Adds to distinctiveness

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Memory’s Time Frames

Sensory Memory – Retains information for an instant

Short-Term Memory – Limited capacity; retains for 30

seconds without rehearsal

Long-Term Memory – Unlimited capacity over a long

period of time

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Developmental Changes in
Memory

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Baddeley’s Model of Memory

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Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory

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Memory

Long-Term Memory

Declarative Procedural
Memory Memory

Episodic Semantic
Memory Memory

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 Representing Information in
Memory
Network Theories Schema Theories

- Nodes stand for labels - Long-term searches are not

and concepts exact
- Network is irregular and - Retrieved information is fit
distorted into an existing formation
(schema)
- Schemas: concepts,
knowledge, or
information about events
that already exist in the
mind and influence the
way we encode
information
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Retrieval
Serial Position recall better at the
beginning and end of list

Encoding associations form cues

Specificity

Recall previously learned

information, as in fill-in-
the-blank
Recognition identify learned
information, as in multiple
choice
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 Forgetting
Cue-Dependent Caused by a lack of retrieval cues
Forgetting

Interference Other information (new or old) gets

Theory in the way of what we are trying to
remember

Decay Theory Passage of time allows “memory

trace” to disintegrate

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Improving Memory
 Promote understanding
 Assist organization of knowledge
 Teach mnemonics
 Method of loci
 Rhymes
 Acronyms
 Keyword

8.20
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 Information Processing Theory
Theory into Practice

Ms. Blackwood has assigned her students 20

spelling words to learn for the week. She notices
that most of her students have no problems
remembering how to spell the first few and the last
few words, but many struggle with those in the
middle of the list.

Q: Why might students have an easier time

remembering how to spell the first and last few
words, but struggle with those in the middle of the
list? Explain.

8.21
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The Information-Processing
Approach

Expertise

Expertise and Expertise and

Learning Teaching

Acquiring
Expertise

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 Experts
 Detect features and meaningful patterns of
information
 Accumulate more content knowledge;
organize around important ideas and
concepts
 Retrieve important aspects of knowledge
with little effort
 Adapt an approach to new situations
 Use effective learning strategies

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 The Information-Processing
Approach

Metacognition

Strategies and
Developmental Metacognitive
Changes Regulation

The Good
Information-
Processing
Model
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Metacognition

“Knowing about knowing”

Metacognitive Knowledge
Monitoring and reflecting on one’s current or
recent thoughts

Metacognitive Activity
Students consciously adapt and manage their
thinking strategies during problem solving and
purposeful thinking
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 Improving Metacognitive Skills

Improvement of metacognitive skills

results from:
1. Developmental changes as student matures
cognitively in metamemory and theories of mind
2. The Good Information-Processing model that
includes specific learning strategies, knowing the
similarities and differences in multiple strategies,
and the benefits of using them
3. Monitoring the effectiveness of strategies and
modifying when necessary
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 Crack the Case
The Test

1. What are the issues in this case?

2. With what type of learning is George having
difficulty?
3. What type of learning is easier for George?
4. Design a study skills program for George
drawing on principles of the cognitive
information-processing approach.

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Reflection & Observation
Reflection:
 What strategies have teachers used to
help you understand difficult concepts?
 Why were these strategies helpful?

Observation:
 What strategies does this teacher
use to promote students’
understanding of the concepts in
this math lesson?
 How does she develop their
metacognitive knowledge and
skills?
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.