REVIEWER

FINALS EXAM
SOCIAL SCIENCE
RATIONAL CHOICE

Discipline And Ideas In Social Science

 INTRODUCTION
•The rational choice theory, also known as choice
theory or rational action theory, is a theory for
understanding and often modelling social and
economic as well as individual behaviour. It is the
main paradigm in the currently-dominant
microeconomics school of thought. It is also
central to modern political science, as well as other
disciplines such as sociology and philosophy.
“• The rational choice theory was early
popularized by a 1992 Nobel Memorial Prize
Laureate in Economics Science, Gary Becker
who was one of the first to apply rational actor
models more widely”. Elster (1989) stated the
essence of rational choice theory when he said
that “when faced with several courses of
action, people usually do what they believe is
likely to have the best overall outcome”.
 •Contemporary political theory, the so-called
rational choice model, starts with the assumption
that actors know what they want and can order
their wants transitively. (These formulations are
probably equivalent. To know what one wants
requires one to choose the best from among several
goals and, failing to attain it, to choose the second
best, etc. To order three goals is to decide that one
is better than either of the other two and that a
second is better than a third, which is exactly a
transitive ordering
ASSUMPTIONS OF THE RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
• There are a few assumptions made by rational choice
theorists. Abell (2000) noted three assumptions made
by rational choice theorists. These assumptions include:
1. Individualism - it is individuals who ultimately take
actions. Individuals, as actors in the society and
everywhere, behave and act always as rational beings,
selfcalculating, self-interested and self-maximizing,
these individual social actions are the ultimate source of
larger social outcomes.
 2. Optimality - Individual choose their actions
optimally, given their individual preferences as well as
the opportunities or constraints with which the individual
faced. Abell (2000) defines optimality as taking place
when no other course of social action would be preferred
by the individual over the course of action the individual
has chosen. This does not mean that the course of action
that the actor adopts is the best in terms of some
objective, and outside judgment. The rational choice
theory, therefore assumes, according to Abell (2000), that
individuals “do the best they can, given their
circumstances as they see them”.
3.Structures - Abell argues that structures and
norms that dictate a single course of action are
merely special cases of rational choice
theory.Although these structures may be damaging
to the rational choice model, individuals will often
find a way to exercise action optimally, hence the
rational choice model may not necessarily show
harmony, consensus, or equality in courses of
action.
4.Self-Regarding Interest - This assumption states that th
actions of the individual are concerned entirely with his or her
own welfare. Abell (2000) noted that in as much as this is a key
assumption in the rational choice approach, is not as essential to
the approach as the assumption on optimality. He also noted that
various types of group sentiments could exist, such as
cooperation, unselfishness, charity, which initially may seem to
be contrary to individual optimality. Rational choice theorist
may argue that these sentiments can be incorporated into the
rational choice model by observing that such sentiments may
ultimately be aimed at pursuing some form of self-interest.
. Rationality - This appears the most
predominant assumption of the rational
theory. All individuals, according to this
assumption act in ways that would benefit
them more; every individual is most like to
undertake courses of actions that they
perceive to be the best possible option and
one that would immensely be to their own
advantage.
 STEPS IN THE RATIONAL CHOICE PROCESS
In order for a decision or choice process to b
accepted as rational outside the individual,
uch a choice process must be arrived at
based on certain steps that form the guidelin
for concluding such actions as rational. Gree
2002) outlined certain steps which he believ
the rational choice analysis should follow:
Institutionalism
Institutionalism
• an approach that views institutions as humanly devised constraints that structure
political, economic, and social interactions.

Historical Institutionalism
• it traces the progress of both socio-economic behaviors in society through the growth
and history of an institution.

New Institutionalism
• focuses on the sociological view on institutions, the way these institutions co-operate
with each other and how they affect society as a whole. (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983)

Old Institutionalism
• focuses on the effects of institutions, as well as general rules, schemes, and factors, on
the scale of the global or local economy. (Scott, 2008)
 What is Institution?

 Institution is a slippery term, which means

different things to different authors.
 For Olsen (1992:7), an institution is the

bearer of a set of practices, a structural

arrangement and a configuration of rules,
which determines what is exemplary
behavior.
 Institutions can be formal or informal.
Formal institutions are normally established and
constituted by binding laws, regulations and legal
orders which prescribe what may or may not be.
 Informal institutions on the other hand are
constituted by conventions, norms, values and
accepted ways of doing things, whether,
economic, political or social.
These are embedded in traditional social
practices and culture which can be equally
binding (Leftwich 2006).
 Characteristics of Institutions

Structure
 The most significant element of an institution.
 Structure may be either formal (legislature,
bureaucracy, political parties, mass-media) or informal
(a network of interacting organizations or a set of
shared norms).

 Institutionalism provides no place for individuals and

their interests.
 Rather it involves groups of individuals in some sort
of patterned interactions that is predictable based
upon specified relationships among the actors.
Characteristics of Institutions

Stability
 The existence of some sort of stability over time.
 Some legislator may decide to meet in a committee
meeting once in a room in the parliament house. That
could be very pleasant but it would not be an
institution.
 If they agree to meet routinely after a specific
period of time at the same place, that would begin to
take on the shape of an institution.
Characteristics of Institutions

 Regulator of individual behavior

 Institutions must in some way (formal/informal)

constrain the behavior of its members. If we
resume with the trivial instance of the committee
meeting above, it may not be considered as an
institution if the members do not attach importance
and obligation to attend the meeting.
Characteristics of Institutions

 Shared Values

 There should be some sense of shared values and

meaning among the members of the institution. This
view is central to the normative institutionalism of
March and Olsen
Characteristics of Institutions

 Legitimacy

 Institutions involve legitimacy beyond the

preference of individual actors. They are valued in
themselves and not simply for their immediate
purposes and outputs.
Institution’s stability of over time may contribute
to gain this legitimacy (Lowndes: 1996:182).
Old institutionalism
• focuses on the effects of institutions, as
well as general rules, schemes, and factors,
on the scale of the global or local economy.
(Scott, 2008) This refers to the adaptation
of businesses to the whims of the local
institutions such as the political body,
schools, etc.
 New institutionalism

• this focuses on the sociological view on

institutions, the way these institutions co-operate
with each other and how they affect society as a
whole. (DiMaggio and Powell,1983)
• This is what we call the ‘social powers’ that
influence the flow and daily living of society.
Historical institutionalism
• It traces the progress of both socio-economic
behavior in society through the growth and
history of an institution. According to Charles
Tilly, historical institutionalism is a method apt
for measuring “big structures, large processes,
and making huge comparisons.” (Tilly, 1984)
FEMINIST SOCIAL THEORY
 Feminism
Feminism is a collection of movements
and ideologies aimed at defining,
establishing, and defending equal
political, economic, and social rights for
women.

Feminist theory is a conflict

theory that studies gender,
patriarchy, and the oppression
of women.

In most societies, women have

been systematically oppressed
Classical social generally ignored
women or had misleading analysis of
issues related to women.
 Three Waves

Feminist theory has developed in three

waves:
1. The first wave focused on suffrage and
political rights,
2. The second focused on inequality between
the genders,
3. Third wave, emphasize globalization, post
colonialism, post structuralism and post
modernism.
 First Wave
19&20th century US, UK,
Netherlands and Canada.

Primarily on gaining women's suffrage

(the right to vote)

It emerged in the
environment of urban
industrialism and
liberal, socialist
politics.
In 1848, Mott and Stanton held a
woman's rights convention in Seneca
Falls, New York, where a declaration of
independence for women was drafted.
 Second Wave
Published in 1949 and it deals with the
treatment of women throughout
history and is often regarded as a major
work of feminist philosophy and the
starting point of second-wave feminism.
Second Wave began in the early
1960's in the United states. Later it
spread to Europe and Asia. It lasted
through the early 1980's.

It focused on social inequality between genders.

It tackled the issues like sexuality, family, the
workplace, reproductive rights, de facto
inequalities, and official legal inequalities.
Betty Friedan A leading figure in the women's movement in the
United States, her 1963 book The Feminine Mystique is often
credited with sparking the second wave of American feminism in the
20th century. In 1966, Friedan founded and was elected the first
president of the National Organization for Women (NOW), which
aimed to bring women "into the mainstream of American society
now [in] fully equal partnership with men".
 The report of the [American] Presidential
Commission on the Status of Women found
discrimination against women in every aspect of
American life and outlined plans to achieve equality.
Specific recommendations for women in the workplace
included fair hiring practices, paid maternity leave,
and affordable childcare.

1971-The first women's liberation

march in London occurred.

1973-Women are allowed on the

floor of the London Stock
Exchange for the first time.

1974-Contraception became free

for women in the United
Kingdom.

1979- Margaret Thatcher became the

first female Prime Minister of the
United Kingdom.
 Third Wave
First two waves of
feminism were dominated
Rebecca Walker, then a 23-year-old, by white women from
bisexual African-American woman advanced capitalist
born in Jackson, Mississippi, coined societies.
the term "third-wave feminism" in
1992.

Third wave feminist theory

critiques generalizations about
sex and gender.
A post-structuralist
interpretation of gender and
sexuality, is central to much of
the third wave ideology.

Prominent issues
Third Wave feminism is very Gender violence
individualistic. Focused Reproductive rights (e.g. abortion)
more on personal Reclaiming derogatory terms
empowerment as a starting Rape
place for social change. Single mothers
 Origin of Feminism
France in 1610: Salon (a gathering for
intellectual discussion) started outside
of the royal court. It reserved for
upper class women.

The Revolutionary War in

1774 and the French
Revolution in 1789 also
advanced the concept of
women's freedom.

By mobilizing more women

politically and establishing a
consensus of freedom as a
human right
1792: Mary Wollstonecraft published
one of the seminal works of modern
feminism. The "Vindication of the
Rights of Women"
 Radical feminism
Radical (basically meaning extreme)
feminists Believe that men are the enemy,
and that they control, exploit &
oppress women through the process of
patriarchy (male rule or domination)
in employment, family relations,
sexual relations & status.
 Marxist Feminism

In the 1970’s a number of women began to draw

Upon Marxist theory to explain the oppression of
Women in society.

They do not see women’s oppression arising

solely From Patriarchy, but primarily from
Capitalism that Forces them to be unpaid
labourers & nurturers in Order to maintain
capitalism.
 Liberal Feminism

Liberal Feminism is less of a theoretical

perspective and more of a political movement.

They tend to criticise other Feminists for ignoring

the progress that has been made in society with
regards to gender inequality.

They are also more likely to argue that gender

Roles are also limiting for men
 Difference Feminism
Basically, the 3 branches of feminism we have
just considered tend to see women as a single
group who share the same interests,
experiences & types of exploitation.

Difference Feminism, that has much in common

with Post modernism, argues that women have
a variety of interests & needs and are not one
single united group.
HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMENOLOGY – is a qualitative
research methodology that arose out of and remains closely tied
to phenomenological philosophy, a strand of continent
philosophy.

Phenomenology refers to a person’s perception of the meaning of

a event, as opposed to the event as exist externally to (outside
of) that person
 HERMENEUTIC ANALYSIS
Hermeneutic Analysis is a name for various
methods of analysis, which are based on
interpreting. The strategy forms an opposite to
those research strategies which stress
objectivity and independence of interpretations
in the formationsin formation of knowledge.
 HERMENEUTIC RESEARCH
Hermeneutic research enables you to make
interpretations and gain an in-depth
understanding of the researched phenomenon.
Hermeneutic researchemphasizes subjective
interpretations in the research of meanings of
texts, art, culture, social phenomena and
thinking.
 PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Phenomenological analysis is based on
discussions and reflections of direct sense
perception and experiences of the researched
phenomenon. A starting point of the strategy is
your ability to approach a project without a
priori assumptions, definitions or theoretical
frameworks. A key aspect of this method of
analysis is phenomenological reduction.
 PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Phenomenological research enables you to
explore experiences and sensory perception
(different to abstract perceptions) of researched
phenomenon, and the formation of
understanding based on these experiences and
perceptions. Your research strategy is based,
therefore, on either your own or other people’s
experiences and sensory perceptions.
 HUMAN-
ENVIROMEN
T SYSTEM
 HUMAN
•S
Humans have the capacity to
interact with its environment.
•Humans and the environment have
that “mutual” interaction with each
other.
•Humans have the capacity to change
or influence the balance of the society.
•Humans always have the capacity to
adapt to its environment
ENVIRONMENT
•Is a complex of many variables
which surrounds man as well as
the living organisms.
•Environment includes water, air
and land and the interrelation
ships which exists among and
between water, air and land.
SYSTEMS
•It may be described as a
complex of interacting
components together with the
relationships among them that
permit the identification of a
boundary-maintaining entity or
process.
 What is a human environment?

• A human environment is the area

that a human lives in. They are varied
from there, even more so
by humans ability to adapt
the environment to us and us to
the environment.
HUMAN-ENVIROMENT SYSTEM
•It is also known as the Coupled
Human and Natural System, or
CHANS)
•It is an integrated scientific
(e.g., hydrologic, atmospheric,
biological) sub-systems of the
planet (National Science
Foundation).
•This theory follows the idea that
social and natural systems are
inseparable.
•Researches in the Human-
Environment System are
increasing in frequency in
scientific literature and
many deals
 HUMAN
ACTIONS AND
ITS
ENVIRONMENT
 1. HUMAN
OVERPOPULATION
•Human overpopulation occurs
when the ecological footprint
of a human population in a
specific
•geographical location exceeds the carrying
capacity of the place occupied by that group.
2. INTENSIVE FARMING
Intensive farming or intensive
agriculture is a kind of agriculture
where a lot of capital and labor are
used to increase the yield that
can be obtained per area. The use
of large amounts of pesticides for
crops, and for medication for
animal stocks is common.
3. EXHAUSTIVE
LAND USE
It involves exhaustive
management and modification of
natural environment or wilderness
into built environment such as
settlements and semi-natural
habitats such as arable fields,
4. HYDROLOGY
It is the scientific study of the
movement, distribution, and
quality of water on Earth and
other planets, including the water
cycle, water resources and
environmental watershed
sustainability.
FILIPINO SOCIAL THINKERS
 JOSE RIZAL

(REFORMIST)

Intelligence is the solution to

the ills of the country.

 ISABELO DELOS
REYES (LABOR
ACTIVIST/
ANTHROPOLOGIST
•Father of
Filipino
Socialism
•Initiated labor
strikes against
 ANDRES BONIFACIO
(REVOLUTIONIST)
According to him, a revolution of war is
justified when there is breach of contract.
MANUEL LUIS
QUEZON
(POLITICAL
PHILOSOPHER
•Political
pragmatism &
political operation
for an eventual
Philippine
•Political Pragmatism –
“one must fight for
a goal but if
obstacles towards
that goal are
•Believedin Social
Darwinism –
governments are
products of political
struggles for
R. ESQUIREL
EMBUSCADO
(DISSECTIONIST)
•As a painter,
he
believed that the task
of an authentic artist is
to cut the umbilical
cord of the past, to
make use of the
present, and to
protect that present
to the open future.
He called this art of
“dissectionism.”
 RENATO CONSTANTINO

(NATIONALIST)

“When one makes a nationalist choice, he or

she chooses not for himself or herself alone

but for the entire nation as well.”

VALUE SYSTEM
 one of the important elements in Filipino
culture.

• basic
personality
• basic social unit
• politics
• economics
• technology
• ecology
 HALAGA represents the surface level of the
pamantayan system and functions as the
cognitive- evaluate core of the system.

 ASAL is primarily a behavioral concept which refers to

the intrinsic quality and meaning of actions.

 DIWA is the spiritual core of our traditional values

and the essence of our collective sentiments or
psyche as a people.
Fr. Frank Lynch
- defined PAKIKISAMA as the ability to
get along with each others in such way as to
avoid signs of conflict. Camaraderie among
Filipino makes them flexible and easy to be
with.

 Pakikisama occurs when teenagers join their

peer groups in a drinking spree for fear of
incurring the groups disapproval.
FAMILY CLOSENESS AND
SECURITY
 natural dependence and mutual sharing
among family members, financially and
emotionally.

 Filipinos have an extended family structure where

married sons and daughters remain under the roof
of their parents for protection.
CLOSE-KNIT PHENOMENON – is a binding
element as the threads of society are rewoven by
giving attention on what the individual experiences
in his/her capacity as a member of the community.

The family is seen as a defense against a

hostile world and a unit where one can
turn to in case he/she has a serious
problem (Panopio & Rolda, 2000).
SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE
- refers to the way of life of
Filipinos to be recognized or
acknowledged by their
fellowmen and social groups.

PAKIKISAMA
- is yielding to the will of
the majority or to the leader
which could result to both to
positive and negative behavior. It
refers to one’s effort to get along
with everybody.
 NONRATIONALISM
- refers to the tendency to perceive
thoughts, objects, events and persons as
sacred.

 ANIMISM
- is the belief that a spirit pervades in
activities.

 FATALISM
-expresses the bahala na attitude which means
leaving matters as they are because nature will take its
course.
It is believing that life depends
on:
 Swerte or buenas (good luck)
 Tadhana (decried by fate)
 Malas (bad luck)

 BAHALA NA
- is an expression which
expresses that fatalistic outlook of
the Filipino. It happens when one
simply resigns to the
consequences of life’s difficulties.
 Expressions which reflect bahala na
are:

 iginuhit ng tadhana (decried by fate)

 malas (bad luck)
 swerte (good luck)
 gulong ng palad (life’s ups and downs)
 tsamba (undeserved success brought about by luck)

In every positive way, bahala na is what makes people move, take risks
and plan for the future (Panopio & Rolda, 2000).
BAYANIHAN: TEAM
SPIRIT
- denotes camaraderie
among the people in the
community and connotes
helping one another in
time of need.
 UTANG NA LOOB: INFINITE
RESPONSIBILITY
- portrays our true
identity based on our concern
and response to others.

o Pagtanaw is the unending

gratitude but this is not enough
because the responsibility to
others does not end since
pagpapakatao has no limits,
same with pakikipagkapwa-tao.
 HOSPITALITY: A WELCOME
ATTITUDE
Bukas-Loob na
Pagtanggap
- Filipinos open their
hearts to complete strangers and
offer them the best in their homes.
(SP)
Kasaysayan
Virgilio Enriquez
-- a.k.a Doc E.
-- itinuturing na Ama ng
Sikolohiyang Pilipino
-- nag-aral ng post-graduate
studies sa ibang bansa
-- taong 1970s ng bumalik sa
Pilipinas
Tatlong anyo ng Sikolohiya

1. Sikolohiya sa Pilipinas
2. Sikolohiya ng mga Pilipino
3. Sikolohiyang Pilipino
Pangunahing-aral ng
Sikolohiyang Pilipino
 a. Core Value or Kapwa
• na tumutukoy sa Kapwa, nangangahulugang 'togetherness', ang
nangunguna sa pangunahing-aral ng Sikolohiyang Pilipino. Kapwa ay
tumutukoy sa pamayanan; na hindi ka nag-iisa sa paggawa. Ang
Kapwa ay mayroong dalawang uri. Ang una ay Ibang Tao (other
people).
•Ibang Tao ("outsider") Binubuo ng limang saklaw:
Pakikitungo: civility
Pakikisalamuha: act of mixing
Pakikilahok: act of
Pakikibagay: joining
Pakikisama: conformity
being united
Hindi Ibang Tao ("one-of-us")
withBinubuo
theng tatlong saklaw:
Pakikipagpalagayang-loob:
group. act of mutual trust
Pakikisangkot: act of joining others
Pakikipagkaisa: being one with others
b. Pivotal interpersonal
value
• Pakiramdam: Ibahagi ang sariling kaisipan.
Ang mga Pilipino ay gumagamit ng damdam, o
ang sariling kaisipan sa damdamin ng iba,
bilang pangunahing kasangkapan sa kanyang
pakikitungo sa kapwa tao.
c. Linking socio-personal
value
• Kagandahang-Loob: Ang pagbabahagi sa
sangkatauhan. Tumutukoy ito sa kakayahang
tumulong sa kapwa tao sa panahon ng kanilang
pangangailan dahil sa kanilang pagkakaunawa
na ang pagiging magkasama ay bahagi na ng
isang pagiging Pilipino.
Pantayon
g
Pananaw
By Zeus Salazar
•Pantayong Pananaw is a
discourse within the
indigenous tradition that
was developed by Dr. Zeus
Salazar, a History
professor from the History
Department of University
of the Philippines Diliman
and considered as the
•Pantayong Pananaw came
from the words pantayo and
pananaw. The term pantayo
was derived from the root
word tayo which means we,
the plural form of the first
person pronoun and the prefix
pan-which means for.
•While pananaw means
perspective in English.
Understood as a single term,
Pantayong Pananaw means A
For-Us Perspective .
•In 2003, Ramon Guillermo
translated Pantayong
Pananaw as a from-us-for-
us perspective. “In this
new translation, the
perspective emphasizes
that the cultural notion is
not only the subject and
goal of discourse but it is
•Through this perspective,
Filipinos can communicate
freely through the use of
their own concepts,
language, thought
patterns, manner of
relating, and interests.
 Multidisciplinary
Lessons
What is the multidisciplinary approach?

The multidisciplinary approach is also
called the “interdisciplinary”
 approach
It allows for the combination of different
 subjects during one lesson or project.
It can be also be an opportunity to team
teach with another teacher if so
desired (although it is by no means
necessary).