Transducer

• "Transducers" are devices that convert one form of

energy into another. Heat, strain, vibration, and
pressure are the examples of energy that can be
converted into various output signals. 
• One common example would be a microphone,
which converts sound waves into an electrical signal
for transmission. (Conversely, another example could
be the speaker that receives that amplified signal,
and converts it back into sound waves again.)
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS

• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to

each other i.e. the sensing element and transduction
element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device
producing measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to
suitable electrical form.
 Transducer, Sensor, and Actuator
• Transducer:
– a device that converts energy from one form to
another
• Sensor:
– converts a physical parameter to an electrical
output (a type of transducer, e.g. a microphone)
• Actuator:
– converts an electrical signal to a physical output
(opposite of a sensor, e.g. a speaker)
3
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The transducers can be classified as:

I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Analog and digital transducers.
III. On the basis of transduction principle used.
IV. Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.
Active and Passive Transducers
• Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, may be
classified into active and passive transducers.Self-generating type
transducers i.e. the transducers, which develop their output the form of
electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source, are called the
active transducers. Such transducers draw energy from the system under
measurement. Normal such transducers give very small output and,
therefore, use of amplifier becomes essential.
• Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or
capacitance changes with the change in input signal, are called the passive
transducers. These transducers require external power source for energy
conversion. In such transducer electrical parameters i.e. resistance,
inductance or capacitance causes a change in voltages current or
frequency of the external power source.
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
 Analog and Digital Transducers
• Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into
analog and digital transducers. Analog transducer converts input signal
into output signal, which is a continuous function of time such as
thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-couple etc. Digital transducer
converts input signal into the output signal of the form of pulse e.g. it
gives discrete output.
• These transducers are becoming more and more popular now-a-days
because of advantages associated with digital measuring instruments and
also due to the effect that digital signals can be transmitted over a long
distance without causing much distortion due to amplitude variation and
phase shift. Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an ADC
(analog-digital convector) is called a digital transducer.
 Strain Gauge
• When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its 
elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will
become narrower and longer, changes that increase its electrical
resistance end-to-end. Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such
that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten, changes that
decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end.
• A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length
and decrease its cross-sectionalRarea. The combined
L effect is an increase
in resistance: A

Where, ρ: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters

• This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is
related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
 gauge factor
• The gauge factor  is defined as: R / R
K
• Where
L / L
• K= the gauge factor
• R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
• ∆R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
• L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
• ∆L=the change in initial length in meters
• ∆L/L =strain
Wheatstone bridge method to measure the strain
Typically, the rheostat arm of the bridge (R2 in the diagram) is set at a value equal to
the strain gauge resistance with no force applied. The two ratio arms of the bridge
(R1 and R3) are set equal to each other. Thus, with no force applied to the strain
gauge, the bridge will be symmetrically balanced and the voltmeter will indicate
zero volts, representing zero force on the strain gauge. As the strain gauge is either
compressed or tensed, its resistance will decrease or increase, respectively, thus
unbalancing the bridge and producing an indication at the voltmeter. This
arrangement, with a single element of the bridge changing resistance in response to
the measured variable (mechanical force), is known as aquarter-bridge circuit.
 Displacement Transducer
• "Displacement" refers to how the transducer receives or measures
"input information" through various forms of motion. Stretching,
shaking, and pressures are examples of these motions. 

"Linear" refers to the design of a transducer, in that it receives

information from a source in a linear, or straight, direction. 

So, a Linear Displacement Transducer is a device that takes some

form of input energy fed to it in a straight line, and outputs a
converted signal relative to the range of displacement that has taken
place. (If you know what a "potentiometer" is, think of a Linear
Displacement Transducer as a potentiometer that moves in and out
rather than rotates left and right.)
 LVDT
linear variable displacement transducer is a type of electrical transformer
 used for measuring linear displacement (position)
• A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) consists of a primary
winding and two secondary windings symmetrically spaced on a
cylindrical form. A movable magnetic core inside the coil assembly
provides a path for the magnetic flux linking the windings.
 Contd..
• When an AC carrier excitation is applied to the primary winding, voltages
are induced in the two secondary windings. These are connected in
opposition, so that the two voltages are 180° out-of-phase. If the core is
centered between the secondary windings, the net output of the transducer
is zero. When the core is moved off center, the induced voltage in the
secondary winding toward which the core is moved increases, while the
induced voltage in the opposite winding decreases.
• For off-center displacements within the range of operation, differential
voltage output varies Iinearly with the changes in the core position. The
phase of this output voltage is reversed as the core is moved from one side
of the electrical center to the other.
 Resistance Thermometer
• Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to measure temperature by correlating
the resistance of the RTD element with temperature.
• Temperature sensitive materials used in the construction of RTDs include
platinum, nickel, and copper. As platinum is the most commonly used
metal for making RTD’s, the device can also be called Platinum Resistance
Thermometers (PRT’s) in which resistance of the sensor will increase 0.385
ohms per one degree Celsius increase in temperature.

The electrical resistance of many metals (e.g. copper, silver, aluminium, platinum)
increases approximately linearly with absolute temperature and this feature makes
them useful as temperature sensors. The resistance of a wire of the material is
measured by passing a current (AC or DC) through it and measuring the voltage with
a suitable bridge or voltmeter, and the reading is converted to temperature using a
calibration equation.
By supplying an RTD with a constant current and measuring the resulting voltage drop
across the resistor, the RTD’s resistance can be calculated, and the temperature can be
determined,to do so the RTD is connected by two wires to a Wheatstone bridge circuit
and the output voltage is measured. 

They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications
below 600 °C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability.

The main principle of operation of an RTD is that when the temperature of an object
increases or decreases, the resistance also increases or decreases proportionally. The
main difference between a RTD and a Thermistor is that the sensing element used in a
RTD is a metal whereas in thermistor it is ceramic or polymer material.
 Thermocouple
• A thermocouple is comprised of at least two metals joined together to
form two junctions. One is connected to the body whose temperature is
to be measured; this is the hot or measuring junction. The other junction
is connected to a body of known temperature; this is the cold or reference
junction. A temperature difference will cause a voltage to be
developed (seeback effect ).Therefore the thermocouple measures
unknown temperature of the body with reference to the known
temperature of the other body.
 Thermocouple working principle
• The general circuit for the working of thermocouple is shown in the figure
1 above. It comprises of two dissimilar metals, A and B. These are joined
together to form two junctions, p and q, which are maintained at the
temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. Remember that the thermocouple
cannot be formed if there are not two junctions. Since the two junctions
are maintained at different temperatures the Peltier emf is generated
within the circuit and it is the function of the temperatures of two
junctions.
 Contd..
• If the temperature of both the junctions is same, equal and opposite emf
will be generated at both junctions and the net current flowing through
the junction is zero. If the junctions are maintained at different
temperatures, the emf’s will not become zero and there will be a net
current flowing through the circuit. The total emf flowing through this
circuit depends on the metals used within the circuit as well as the
temperature of the two junctions. The total emf or the current flowing
through the circuit can be measured easily by the suitable device.
 Thermistor
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on 
temperature. Thermistors are widely used as current limiter, temperature
sensors (NTC type typically), self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-
regulating heating elements.
• Resistance of a thermistor changes with temperature. How much the
resistance changes depends on the type of material used in the thermistor. 
Basic operation
• Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between
resistance and temperature is linear, then:
• The main difference between a RTD and a Thermistor is that the
sensing element used in a RTD is a metal whereas in thermistor it is
ceramic or polymer material.

• Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the

classification of . If  is positive, the resistance increases with
increasing temperature, and the device is called a 
positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor. If  is
negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and
the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a  as
close to 0 as possible, so that their resistance remains nearly constant
over a wide temperature range.
Optical Transducers – Definition
Optical transducers are the sensor that are used to convert light rays into
electronic signals. These are quite similar to photo-resistor .These sensors
 measures the physical quantity of light and then it is translated into that form
which is readable by an instrument.
OR
Electro-optical sensors are electronic detectors that convert light, or a change in
light, into an electronic signal. They are used in many industrial and consumer
applications, for example:
Lamps that turn on automatically in response to darkness
Position sensors that activate when an object interrupts a light beam
Flash detection, to synchronize one photographic flash to another
Photoelectric sensors that detect the distance, absence, or presence of an
object
 How Optical Sensors work ?

The working of this transducer is quite easily to understand  Optical sensors are
  generally part of a larger system that integrates a source of light,optical sensor and  a
measuring device.The whole set up is  often connected to an electrical trigger. The
trigger reacts to the  changes in signal within the light sensor.

This transducer can sense the changes from one or many light beams. When there is
any change in the light intensity , the light sensor operates as a photoelectric trigger
and therefore changes occur in the electrical output.The output may  decreases or
increases  .

One of the features of these transducers are that these can work either on the single
point method or through a distribution of points. In a single point method, to activate
a sensor , a sole phase change is required while in the distribution concept, the sensor
is reactive along a long series of sensors or single fiber-optic array.
Function
An optical sensor converts light rays into electronic signals. It measures the physical
quantity of light and then translates it into a form that is readable by an instrument.
An optical sensor is generally part of a larger system that integrates a source of light, a
measuring device and the optical sensor. This is often connected to an electrical
trigger. The trigger reacts to a change in the signal within the light sensor. An optical
sensor can measure the changes from one or several light beams. When a change
occurs, the light sensor operates as a photoelectric trigger and therefore either
increases or decreases the electrical output. An optical switch enables signals in
optical fibres or integrated optical circuits to be switched selectively from one circuit to
another. An optical switch can operate by mechanical means or by electro-optic
effects, magneto-optic effects as well as by other methods. Optical switches are
optoelectronic devices which can be integrated with integrated or discrete
microelectronic circuits.
Types of Optical Sensors and Switches
There are many different kinds of optical sensors, the most common types are:[1]
Photoconductive devices convert a change of incident light into a change of resistance.
Photovoltaics, commonly known as solar cells, convert an amount of incident light into
an output voltage.
Photodiodes convert an amount of incident light into an output current.
Phototransistors are a type of bipolar transistor where the base-collector junction is
exposed to light. This results in the same behaviour of a photodiode, but with an
internal gain.
Optical Switches are usually used in optical fibers, where the electro-optic effect is
used to switch one circuit to another. These switches can be implemented with, for
example, microelectromechanical systems or piezoelectric systems.