Chapter 8

Global Information Ethics

Slides prepared by Cyndi Chie and Sarah Frye. Fourth edition revisions by Sharon Gray.
 Evaluating Information
 The “Digital Divide”
 Neo-Luddite Views of Computers, Technology,
and Quality of Life
 Making Decisions About Technology
 Technology and Work
 Impact on Employment

Corresponding page number: 329

The Need for Responsible Judgment
 Expert information or ‘wisdom of the crowd’?
 Daunting amount of information on the web, much of
this information is not correct
 Search engines are replacing librarians, but Web sites
are ranked by popularity, not by expert evaluation
 Wisdom of the crowd - ratings by public of Web site
 If millions participate, the results will be useful

Corresponding page number: 330-332

The Need for Responsible Judgment
 Wikipedia
 Written by volunteers, some posts are biased and not
accurate
 Although anyone can write, most people do not
 Those that do typically are educated and experts

Corresponding page number: 331-332

The Need for Responsible Judgment
 Wisdom of the crowd
 Problems of unreliable information are not new
 The Web magnifies the problems
 Rating systems are easy to manipulate
 Vulnerable viewers
 Less educated individuals
 Children

Corresponding page number: 332-335

The Need for Responsible Judgment
 Narrowing the information stream

Corresponding page number: 335-337

The Need for Responsible Judgment
 Abdicating responsibility
 People willing to let computers do their thinking
 Reliance on computer systems over human judgment
may become institutionalized
 Fear of having to defend your own judgment if
something goes wrong

Corresponding page number: 337-338

Computer Models
 Evaluating Models
 How well do the modelers understand the underlying
science or theory?
 Models necessarily involve assumptions and
simplifications of reality.
 How closely do the results or predictions correspond
with the results from physical experiments or real
experience?

Corresponding page number: 339-343

Computer Models
 Why models may not be accurate
 We might not have complete knowledge of the
system we are modeling.
 The data describing current conditions or
characteristics may be incomplete or inaccurate.
 Computing power may be inadequate for the
complexity of the model.
 It is difficult, if not impossible, to numerically quantify
variables that represent human values and choices.

Corresponding page number: 343-347

Trends in Computer Access
 New technologies only available to the wealthy
 The time it takes for new technology to make its way into
common use is decreasing
 Cost is not the only factor; ease of use plays a role
 Entrepreneurs provide low cost options for people who
cannot otherwise afford something
 Government funds technology in schools
 As technology becomes more prevalent, the issues shift
from the haves and have-nots to level of service

Corresponding page number: 347-349

The Global Divide and the Next Billion Users
 Approximately two billion people worldwide have access
to the Web, a fivefold increase over roughly a decade.
Approximately five billion do not use the Internet.
 Non-profit organizations and huge computer companies
are spreading computer access to people in developing
countries.
 Bringing new technology to poor countries is not just a
matter of money to buy equipment; PCs and laptops
must work in extreme environments.
 Some people actively working to shrink the digital divide
emphasize the need to provide access in ways
appropriate to the local culture.

Corresponding page number: 349-350

Criticisms of Computing Technologies
 Computers cause massive unemployment and de-skilling
of jobs.
 Computers “manufacture needs”; we use them because
they are there, not because they satisfy real needs.
 Computers cause social inequity
 Computers cause social disintegration; they are
dehumanizing. They weaken communities and lead to
isolation of people from each other.

Corresponding page number: 352-353

Criticisms of Computing Technologies (cont.)
 Computers separate humans from nature and destroy
the environment.
 Computers benefit big business and big government the
most.
 Use of computers in schools thwarts development of
social skills, human values, and intellectual skills in
children.
 Computers do little or nothing to solve real problems.

Corresponding page number: 352-353

Views of Economics, Nature, and Human Needs
 Difference in perspective between Luddites and non-
Luddites
 What is the purpose of technology?
 To Luddites, it is to eliminate jobs to reduce cost of
production
 To non-Luddites, it is to reduce effort needed to
produce goods and services.
 While both statements say nearly the same thing,
the first suggests massive unemployment, profits for
capitalists, and a poorer life for most workers. The
second suggests improvements in wealth and
standard of living.

Corresponding page number: 354-355

Does the technology create a need for itself?

Corresponding page number: 355-357

Nature and human life styles
Luddites argue that technology has made no important
improvements in life.
Many debates set up a humans-versus-nature dichotomy.
Whether a computing device is “good,” by a human-
centered standard, depends on whether it meets our
needs, how well it does so, at what cost, and how well it
compares to alternatives.

Corresponding page number: 357-358

Accomplishments of technology
Increased life expectancy
Elimination or reduction of many diseases
Increased standard of living
Assistive technologies for those with disabilities

Corresponding page number: 358-360

Discussion Questions
To what extent are Neo-Luddite criticisms
(on slides 12 and 13) valid?
Can a society choose to have certain specific
desirable modern inventions while prohibiting
undesirable ones?

Corresponding page number: 361

The Difficulty of Prediction
 Each new technology finds new and unexpected uses
 The history of technology is full of wildly wrong
predictions
 Weizenbaum argued against developing speech
recognition technology
 Mistaken expectations of costs and benefits
 Should we decline a technology because of potential
abuse and ignore the benefits?
 New technologies are often expensive, but costs drop
as the technology advances and the demand
increases

Corresponding page number: 362-365

Intelligent Machines and Superintelligent Humans -
Or the End of the Human Race?
Technological Singularity - point at which artificial
intelligence or some combined human-machine intelligence
advances so far that we cannot comprehend what lies on
the other side
We cannot prepare for aftermath, but prepare for more
gradual developments
Select a decision making process most likely to produce
what people want

Corresponding page number: 365-368

A Few Observations
Limit the scope of decisions about development of new
technology
Decentralize the decision-making process and make it
noncoercive, to reduce the impact of mistakes, avoid
manipulation by entrenched companies who fear
competition, and prevent violations of liberty

Corresponding page number: 368

Discussion Questions
How well can we predict the consequences of a
new technology or application?
Who would make the decisions?

Corresponding page number: 361

Changes, Fears, and Questions
The introduction of computers in the workplace
generated many fears
 Mass unemployment due to increased efficiency
 The need for increased skill and training widens the
earning gap
New trends still generating fears
 Offshoring of jobs will lead to mass unemployment
 Employers use of technology to monitor their
employees

Corresponding page number: 294

Job creation and destruction
 A successful technology eliminates or reduces some jobs
but creates others
 Reduced the need for telephone operators, meter
readers, mid-level managers
 New industries arise
 Internet
 Cellular communications
 Lower prices increase demand and create jobs
 Music industry changed from serving the wealthy to
serving the masses, employing more than just
musicians

Corresponding page number: 295-297

Job Creation and destruction
 Unemployment rates fluctuate
 Growth of computers has been steady, while
unemployment has fluctuated widely
 Unemployment has more to do with an economy’s ability
to adapt to change.

Corresponding page number: 298-299

Job Creation and destruction
 Are we earning less?
 Since the 1970s, wages decreased but fringe benefits
increased
 People work fewer hours since the Industrial
Revolution
 Decrease in take-home pay may be due to other
factors (e.g. increased taxes)
 Purchasing power increases as prices fall

Corresponding page number: 299-300

Changing Skills and Skill Levels
 New products and services based on computer
technology create jobs in design, marketing,
manufacture, sales, customer service, repair, and
maintenance.
 The new jobs created from computers are different from
the jobs eliminated.
 New jobs such as computer engineer and system analyst
jobs require a college degree, where jobs such as bank
tellers, customer service representatives and clerks do
not.
 Companies are more willing to hire people without
specific skills when they can train new people quickly and
use automated support systems.

Corresponding page number: 300-302

Discussion Questions
What jobs have been eliminated due to technology?
What jobs that were once considered high-skill jobs
are now low-skill due to technology?
 What new jobs have been created because of
technology?
Do automated systems mean fewer jobs for
high-skilled workers?
Will human intelligence in employment be “devalued”?

Corresponding page number: 295-302

Telecommuting
Working at home using a computer electronically linked to
one's place of employment
Mobile office using a laptop, working out of your car or at
customer locations
Fulltime and part-time telecommuting

Corresponding page number: 302-303

Telecommuting
Benefits
 Reduces overhead for employers
 Reduces need for large offices
 Employees are more productive, satisfied, and loyal
 Reduces traffic congestion, pollution, gasoline use, and
stress
 Reduces expenses for commuting and money spent on
work clothes
 Allows work to continue after blizzards, hurricanes, etc.

Corresponding page number: 303-304

Telecommuting
 Problems
 Employers see resentment from those who have to
work at the office
 For some telecommuting employees, corporation
loyalty weakens
 Odd work hours
 Cost for office space has shifted to the employee
 Security risks when work and personal activities
reside on the same computer

Corresponding page number: 304-305

Discussion Questions
Would you want to telecommute? Why or why not?
How has technology made entrepreneurship easier?
Harder?

Corresponding page number: 303-305

A Global Workforce
 Outsourcing - phenomenon where a company pays
another company for services instead of performing
those tasks itself
 Offshoring - the practice of moving business processes or
services to another country, especially overseas, to
reduce costs
 Inshoring - when another company employs thousands
of people in the U.S. (e.g. offshoring for a German
company means inshoring for U.S.)
 Almost 5% of U.S. workers are employed by foreign
companies

Corresponding page number: 305-308

A Global Workforce
 Problems and side effects of offshoring
 Consumers complain about customer service
representatives, because accents are difficult to
understand
 Employees in U.S. companies need new job skills
(e.g., managing, working with foreign colleagues)
 Increased demand for high-skill workers in other
countries forces salaries up

Corresponding page number: 308

A Global Workforce
 Ethics of hiring foreign workers

Corresponding page number: 309-311

Learning About Job Applicants
The Web and social media provide new means of
information collection on job applicants. Employers:
 search online newsgroups and social networks
 hire data-collection agencies
 use a variety of screening methods to efficiently
reduce a large pool of applicants to a reasonable
number
Some job-seekers attempt to clean up their online
persona.

Corresponding page number: 311-314

Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Employee monitoring is not new
 Employers have always monitored their employees.
 Degree of detail and frequency of monitoring has
varied depending upon kind of work, economic factors,
and available technology. (Time-clocks and logs.)
 Early monitoring was mostly ‘blue-collar’ (factory) and
‘pink-collar’ (telephone and clerical) jobs
 Bosses patrolled the aisles watching workers
 Output counts at the end of the day

Corresponding page number: 314-315

Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Separating – or merging – work and personal
communications
 Employers often prohibit employees from using their
work email, computers, and other devices for personal
use.
 What about employees using personal email accounts,
social media, laptops, smartphones, and other devices
for work?
 Overhead of managing and maintaining systems to
work with variety of brands and operating systems
 Security of company information and operations

Corresponding page number: 315-316

Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Monitoring employer systems
 Roughly half of major companies in U.S. sometimes
monitor the email or voice mail of their employees on
company systems.
 Most companies monitor infrequently, some routinely
intercept all email.

Corresponding page number: 316-317

Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Monitoring employer systems
 Many major companies use software tools that provide
reports on employee Web use.
 Employees spend time on nonwork activities on the
Web
 Some companies block specific sites (e.g. adult
content, sports sites, job search sites, social-network
sites)

Corresponding page number: 316-317

Risks and Rules for Work and Personal
Communications
Monitoring employer systems
 Purposes of monitoring employee communications
include training, measuring or increasing productivity,
checking compliance with rules for communication,
and detecting behavior that threatens the employer
in some way.
 Concerns over security threats such as viruses and
other malicious software
 Concerns about inappropriate activities by employees
(e.g., harassment, unprofessional comment)

Corresponding page number: 316-318

Law and cases for employer systems
Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) prohibits
interception of email and reading stored email without a
court order, but makes an exception for business systems
Courts put heavy weight on the fact that computers, mail,
and phone systems are owned by the employer who
provides them for business purposes

Corresponding page number: 318-320

Law and cases for employer systems
Courts have ruled against monitoring done to snoop on
personal and union activities or to track down whistle
blowers.
Court decisions sometimes depend on whether an
employee had a reasonable “expectation of privacy.”
Many employers have privacy policies regarding email and
voice mail.
The National Labor Relation Board (NLRB) sets rules and
decides cases about worker-employer relations.

Corresponding page number: 318-320

Personal social media
Basing disciplinary action on personal, nonwork social
media is more controversial because it extends employer
control beyond the workplace.
Content in social media is often widely distributed; thus
impact is stronger than that of a private conversation.
Employer restrictions on nonwork social media do not
violate employee’s freedom of speech (unless, in some
cases, when the employer is the government).

Corresponding page number: 320-321

Discussion Questions
It is reasonable for employers to fire employees for content
of their blogs, tweets, or posts on social networks?
Are there good reasons for employers to be concerned
about what their employees post in such places?

Corresponding page number: 320-321

Monitoring location and equipment usage
Electronic identification badges that serve as door keys
 Provide increased security
 Allow monitoring of employee movement

Corresponding page number: 321-322

Monitoring location and equipment usage
GPS tracks an employee's location
 Used in some hospitals to track nurse locations for
emergency purposes, also shows where they are at
lunch or when they use the bathroom
 Used to track long-haul trucks to reduce theft and
optimize delivery schedules, also detects driving
speeds and duration of rest breaks
Employees often complain of loss of privacy

Corresponding page number: 321-322

Discussion Questions
How much privacy is reasonable for an employee to
expect in the workplace?
Under what circumstances is it appropriate for an
employer to read an employee's email?

Corresponding page number: 311- 322