Geology and Civil Engineering

 Geology and Civil Engineering

 Types of dam
 Role of geology in selection of sites for dams
 Forces acting on dams,
 Geological Investigation,
 Geology and Civil Engineering
 Geology provides a systematic knowledge of
construction material, occurrence & properties.
 The knowledge of erosion, transportation helps in river
control.
 The knowledge of ground water is required in
connection with water supply, irrigation.
 Foundation problem of dam bridge building related to
geology of area.
 Geological maps help in planning engineering problem.
 Geology and Civil Engineering
 Tunneling, construction road, slope stability,
knowledge about rocks structures is needed.
 The stability of civil engineering structures is
considerably increased if geological features
faults joints beddings in rocks are properly
located.
 In study of soil mechanics it is necessary to know
how the soil materials were formed in nature.
 Dam
• A dam is a structure which prevents the flow of
water and accumulates it in a reservoir
• Dams are made from a variety of materials such
as rock, steel and wood.
• They are built mainly to control flood water for
irrigating lands, for generating electricity and for
water supplies to industries and cities.
• A dam that serves more than one purpose is called
multipurpose dam
 Advantages of Dam

Dams gather drinking water for Water Supply

people.

Dams help farmers bring water to Irrigation

their farms.

Dams help create power and Hydroelectric

electricity from water.
Dams keep areas from flooding.
Flood Control

Dams create lakes for people to swim Recreation

in and sail on.
Navigation
• Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side 
• Toe: contact on the downstream side
• Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of
the dam rest
• Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam
for checking operations.
• Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting
water before the construction of dam. This helps in
keeping the river bed dry.
• Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release
the excess water of the reservoir to downstream side
• Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level,
which is used to clear the silt accumulation in the
reservoir side.
ACCORDING to the SIZE of the DAM
Large (Big) dam
Small dam
•ACCORDING to HEIGHT of DAM
•High Dam or Large Dam
•If the height of the dam is bigger than 100m
•Medium Dam
•If the height of the dam is between 50m and 100m
•Low Dam or Small Dam
•If the height of the dam is lower than 50m

•Gravity Dams
•Arch Dams
•Butress Dams
•Embankment Dams
ACCORDING to the STATICAL DESIGN of DAM BODY
•Composite Dams
 GRAVITY DAMS

 Gravity Dams use their triangular shape and the sheer

(Vertical) weight of their rock and concrete structure to
hold back the water in the reservoir.

Sarıyar Dam – Sakarya River;

Height= 90 m
Reservoir Capacity= 1.9 billion m3
 ARCH DAMS
 Arch Dams utilize the strength of an arch to displace the
load of water behind it onto the rock walls that it is built
into.

Karakaya Dam – Fırat River;

Height= 173 m
Reservoir Capacity= 9,5 billion m3
 BUTRESS DAMS
 Buttress Dams use multiple reinforced columns to
support a dam that has a relatively thin structure.
Because of this, these dams often use half as much
concrete as gravity dams

Elmalı II – Göksu River;

Height= 42.5 m
Reservoir Capacity= 10 million m3
 EMBANKMENT DAMS
(Rock Fill or Earth Fill Dams)
• They are mostly composed of natural materials such as,
clay, sand, gravel etc...
• Impervious core is placed in the middle of the
embankment body

Atatürk Dam – Fırat River;

Height= 169 m;
Reservoir Capacity= 48,7 billion m3

Terbela Dam
 COMPOSITE DAMS
• Composite dams are combinations of one or more dam types.
Most often a large section of a dam will be either an
embankment or gravity dam, with the section responsible for
power generation being a buttress or arch.

Keban Dam – Fırat River;

Height= 163 m;
Reservoir Capacity= 31 billion m3

Gravity & Rock Fill

ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL STUDIES for
DAM CONSTRUCTION
 1. RECONNAISSANCE STUDY
1. Evaluation of the data
2. Field investigation for limited time (Reconnaissance Study)
3. Some maps in small scale, for example 1/25.000 or 1/50.000
4. Some hydraulic data about
a. Basin
b. Precipitation area
c. Runoff, maximum discharge
d. Modulus of Runoff
e. Some approach to the reservoir area, dam site and type of
dam and height of dam...etc
5. Photogeological studies
6. A preliminary report
2. PRELIMINARY STUDIES at the RESERVOIR
AREA and DAM SITE
1. Dam site investigations
1. Location of dam axis
2. Location of diversion tunnel
3. Location of spillway
4. Location of powerhouse...etc
2. Geological studies
3. Geophysical surveying
4. Underground investigations
1. Boreholes
2. Investigation galleries
5. Surveying for materials
1. Field surveying
2. Laboratory tests
6. Slope stability investigations
7. Earthquake hazard & risk analysis
8. Environmental studies
9. Leakage possibilities from reservoir area
10.Leakage possibilities from dam site
11.Erosion, sedimentation & siltation
 DETAILED INVESTIGATION at DAM SITE

1. Topographic surveyings

2. Geological mappings
3. 1/5000 – 1/1000 or 1/500

4. Underground explorations Boreholes,....etc

5. Hydrogeological studies

6. Slope stability analysis

 FACTORS AFFECTING to the DAM TYPE
SELECTION
• Topography
• Geology
• Bearing capacity of the underlying soil
• Foundation settlements
• Permeability of the foundation soil

• Material availability
• Spillway position
• Earthquakes
• Safety
• Height
• Aesthetic view
• Qualified labour
• Cost
FACTORS AFFECTING to the PLACE of the DAM
AXIS
• Topography
• Geology
• Materials
• Spillway location availability
• Derivation
• Sediments in the flowing water
• Water quality
• Expropriation costs
• Earthquake possibility
• Downstream water rights
 Forces Acting on Dams
To design a dam, various forces must be
considered to insure the safety of the dam.
The most important forces are:
1. Weight of dam
2. Water Pressure
3. Uplift
4. Wave pressure
5. Earthquake forces
• Weight of Dam

The weight of the dam is calculated as

follows:
W   m xVolume

Where γm is the specific weight of the dam’s

material.
• Water Pressure
Water pressure acts perpendicular to the surface of the
dam and is calculated per unit width as follows:

1
P   wh2 h Pw
2
h/
3
Where γw is the specific weight of water and h is the
height of water.
• Uplift
Dams are subjected to uplift force under its
base. Uplift acts upward.

1 h
U   w hB
2
B/ U
3 B

Where B is the width of the base of the dam.

• Wave Pressure
The upper part of the dam (above the water
level) is subjected to the impact of waves. The
maximum wave pressure per unit width is:

Pw
Pv  2.4 w hw 0.375 hw
hw

Where hw is the wave height.

 Earthquake Forces
Dams are subjected to vibration during
earthquakes. Vibration affects both the body
of the dam and the water in the reservoir
behind the dam. Vibration forces are
function of both the intensity (Rechter
Scale) and its duration. The most danger
effect occurs when the vibration is
perpendicular to the face of the dam.
 Geology of Dam Sites
• The Success of a dam is not only related to its
own safety and stability but also to the success
of associated reservoirs.
• In other words, on construction, if a dam stands
firmly but if its reservoirs leaks profusely then
such a dam is to be treated only as a failure
because the purpose for which it was
constructed was not served.
• Therefore, utmost care is needed in planning for
the success of both the dams and the reservoir.
 Geology of Dam Sites
• The Important Geological requirements
which should be considered in the selection
of a dam are as follows:
• Narrow River Valleys
• Occurrence of the bedrock at a shallow
depth.
• Competent rocks to offer a stable
foundation
• Proper Geological Structures
 Geology of Dam Sites
Narrow River Valley
• At the proposed dam site, if the river valley
is narrow, only a small dam is required,
which means the cost of dam construction
will be less. On the other hand, if the
valley is wide, a bigger dam is necessary
which means the construction cost will be
very high.
Narrow River Valley
 Geology of Dam Sites
• Therefore, it is preferable from the economy point of
view, to select such a site along the river valley which
has the least areal cross-section (i.e.. the narrowest part
of the river).
• But such sites should not be blindly selected without
further investigations, because sometimes they may
have severe defects which may lead to serious leakage
from the reservoir and may affect the safety of the
dam.
 Geology of Dam Sites
Bedrock at Shallow Depths
• To ensure its safety and stability a dam has to
necessarily rest on (Physically) very strong and
(Structurally) very stable (i.e. bedrocks).
• If such competent bedrocks occur near the surface or
at shallow depths, the foundation cost of the dam will
naturally be less.
• On the other hand, if competent bedrocks occur at great
depths, the cost of the foundation will be very high
because it involves extensive work of excavation of
loose overburden and concrete refilling.
Bedrock at Shallow Depths
 Geology of Dam Sites
• The Thickness of sediments or loose overburden along
the river valley depends on the nature and the stage of
development of the river. In other words, strong and
fresh bedrocks may occur at or near the surface,
therefore only small dams may be suitable there to
serve a limited purpose.
• To know the bedrock profile, geophysical investigations
such as “Electrical Resistivity studies” or “Seismic
refraction Studies” are carried out carefully..
 Geology of Dam Sites

Competent Rocks for Safe Foundation:

• If Igneous rock occurs at the selected dam site, they
will offer a safe basis, and weak sedimentary rocks,
particularly shale's, poorly cemented sandstones and
limestone's shall naturally be undesirable to serve as
foundation rocks.
 Geology of Dam Sites
• The suitability or otherwise of a site to serve as a foundation
for major dams depends on factors such as :
• The existing rock type at the dam site.
• The extent of weathering it has undergone
• The extent of fracturing
• The extent of geological structures,
• the mode and number of rock types concerned.
 Geology of Dam Sites
• After learning the suitability of the occurrence of
different varieties of common rocks at dam sites, it
should be remembered that all types of rocks exhibit
within themselves some variations in their chemical and
mineral composition.
• Finally it may be said that most of the igneous and
metamorphic rocks, when fresh and free from structural
defects, have enough strength to bear the loads
involved in dam of all sizes with surplus safety factor
too.
 Geology of Dam Sites
Effects of Associated Geological Structures
• For the stability of a dam, the occurrence of favorable
geological structure is a very important requirement.
Under structural geology we have learnt that those rocks
bear certain inherent or original physical properties,
such characters get modified either advantageously or
disadvantageously when geological structure occurs in
those rocks.
 Geology of Dam Sites
Cases of Undisturbed i.e. Horizontal Strata
• This geological situation is good at the dam site
because the load of the dam acts perpendicular to the
bedding planes, which means that the beds are in an
advantageous position to bear the loads with full
competence.
• Further, the seepage of reservoir water that may take
place beneath the dam is effectively prevented by the
weight of the dam which acts vertically downwards.
• Thus the possible uplift pressure which is dangerous
to the stability of the dam is effectively reduced.
 Geology of Dam Sites
• Cases where Beds lie Perpendicular to the
length of the valleys
• (a) Tilted Beds
• Beds with 10 00 to 30 00 inclination in the
upstream directions
• Such a situation is ideal because the
resultant force acts more or less
perpendicular to the bedding plane which
are dipping in the upstream side.
 Geology of Dam Sites
Beds which are Folded
• Folding of beds, which occurs on a
relatively large scale, is generally less
dangerous than faulting. Unless the folds
are of a complex nature.
• However, it should be borne in mind that
unlike simply tilted strata, the folded
rocks are not only under strain but also
physically fractured along the crests.
Geology of Dam Sites
 Geology of Dam Sites
Beds Which are Faulted
• Occurrence of faulting irrespective of its attitude (i.e..
Strike and Dip), right at the dam site is most undesirable.
If the faults are active, under no circumstances, can
dam construction be taken up there. This is not only
because of the fear of possible relative displacement of
the site itself but also due to the possible occurrence of
earthquakes.
• Further, if the fault zone is crushed or intensely
fractured, it becomes physically incompetent to
withstand the forces of the dam.
• Thus locations of the dam sites on a fault zone is
undesirable for different reasons.
 Geology of Dam Sites

Beds Which are Faulted

 Geology of Dam Sites
Beds Which Have Joints
• Among the different geological structures, joints
are the most common and are found to occur in
all kinds of rocks, almost everywhere.
• But Since the rocks with these joints are not under
any strain, and also because of the scope to
overcome their effects easily by simple treatment,
they are not considered as serious defects.
Grouting is generally capable of overcoming the
adverse effects of joints because it fill the gaps of
joints, increase compactness and competency of
the rocks & reduce porosity & permeability.
Beds Which Have Joints
 Disadvantages of Dam

Dams detract from natural settings, ruin nature's work

Dams have inhibited the seasonal migration of fish
Dams may have flooded the potential for archaeological findings
Reservoirs can foster diseases if not properly maintained
Reservoir water can evaporate significantly
Some researchers believe that reservoirs can cause
earthquakes
ACCORDING to the SIZE of the DAM
Large (Big) dam
Small dam
•ACCORDING to HEIGHT of DAM
•High Dam or Large Dam
•If the height of the dam is bigger than 100m
•Medium Dam
•If the height of the dam is between 50m and 100m
•Low Dam or Small Dam
•If the height of the dam is lower than 50m

•Gravity Dams
•Arch Dams
•Butress Dams
•Embankment Dams
ACCORDING to the STATICAL DESIGN of DAM BODY
•Composite Dams