AKD20803 Basic Instrument 1

For Training Purpose Only
Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
AKD 20803
BASIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
Slide 01 of 03
Issue: 01 AKD20803 Basic Instrument
Revision: 00
1
Content:
• Instrument Classification and Layout
• Pressure Measuring Instruments
• Temperature Measuring Instruments
• Speed Measuring Instruments
• Mechanical Movement Measuring Instrument
Issue: 01
Revision: 00 AKD20803 Basic Instrument 2
Instrument Classification and Layout
Introduction
An Instrument must has an ability to capture and convey all of the information
a pilot may want in an accurate and easily understood manner.
Instruments are categorize/group for their:
a. Application or presentation
b. Operation
Category/group according to Application or presentation:
1. Flight and Navigational Instruments
2. Engine Instruments
3. System Instruments
Issue: 01
Flight and Navigational Instruments

Flight instruments is used in controlling the aircraft’s flight attitude and
Navigation instruments are those that contribute information used by
the pilot to guide the aircraft along a definite course.
• Example: Air Speed Indicator, Compass, Altimeter, Artificial Horizon,
Vertical Speed Indicator, Turn and Slip Indicator, Clock, etc
Engine Instruments
Are designed to measure operating parameters of the aircraft engine.
• Example: Engine Speed, EPR, Manifold Pressure, EGT, Vibration,
Torque, etc
Systems Instruments
Are design to provide information concerning aircraft system such as hydraulic,
electrical, pressurization etc.
• Voltmeter, Suction Gauge, Flap Position, Landing Gear etc
Issue: 01
Categories/group according to operation

1. Pressure/Temperature Measuring Instrument
2. Mechanical Indicating Instrument
2. Gyroscopic Instrument
3. Electrical Instrument
• Pressure measuring instruments

– It measure the pressure of air, fuel, oil etc.
• Mechanical indicating instruments
– It use a mechanical system to obtain and/or transmit information.
• Gyroscopic instruments
– It use the gyroscope and are primarily used to displays aircraft attitude
• Electrical and Electronic instruments
– This group uses wires or fiber optic and digital technique to sense and
transmit information for display and warning.
Issue: 01
Instrument Mounting/Layout
All instrument are mounted/layout on panel to ease of pilot in viewing it.
This panel may be mounted vertical or in common practice now sloped forward
at about 15° from the vertical to minimize parallax error.
Type of Instrument Mounting/layout
1. Basic 6
2. Basic T
Basic 6
• Six instruments arrange in two row. This is an old arrangement or also called
‘Blind Flying Panel’.
Top row consist of Air Speed Indicator (left), Attitude Indicator (center) and
Vertical Speed Indicator (right)
Bottom row consist of Altimeter (left), Directional Gyro (center) and Turn and
Slip Indicator (right)
Issue: 01
Basic 6 Basic T
Issue: 01
Basic ‘T’ Panel

• Four main instrument, mounted in the shape of ‘T’
On the top of the T is Airspeed Indicator (left), Attitude Indicator (center)
And Altimeter (right).
Bottom of the T is Heading Indicator (center).
Even thought it is called Basic T but normally two extra main indicator is
fitted. Radio Magnetic Indicator
or Turn and Slip Indicator bellow
Airspeed Indicator and Vertical
Speed Indicator bellow Altimeter.
Issue: 01
Issue: 01
P1, P2, P3 Instrument Panel
This arrangement is fitted normally on large aircraft

• P1
Flight and Navigation
Instruments for the captain to view
• P2
Engine Instruments for the
captain and first officer to view
• P3
Flight and Navigation Instruments
for the first officer to view
Issue: 01
Electronic/Glass Cockpit Panel

Consists of six interchangeable Integrated Display Unit which use cathode ray
tube (CRT). This display consist of:
• Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI)

– displays everything related to the control of aircraft .Also called
Primary Flight Display (PFD)
• Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI)
– displays everything related to navigational of aircraft. Also called
Navigation Display (ND)
• Engine Indicating and Crew Alert System (EICAS)
– Used in Boeing. In Airbus it is called Electronic Centralize Aircraft
Monitoring (ECAM).
– displays primary and secondary engine parameters and systems
Warnings and status.
Issue: 01
Issue: 01
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EHSI Indication
Issue: 01
EICAS
Issue: 01
Issue: 01 AKD20803 Basic Instrument

Revision: 00
18
ECAM
Issue: 01
PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENT
Pressure Terminology
• Atmospheric pressure
– pressure exerted by the weight of the air (Force of gravity).
– Standard ICAO amospheric Pressure at MSL = 14.7 PSI, 1013.25mb or
29.921 in Hg.
– Atmospheric pressure will decrease with increase in altitude.
• Absolute Pressure
– pressure measured with reference to a vacuum or zero pressure.
– A mercury barometer and an altimeter are absolute Pressure Gauge.
– An Aneroid Capsule measures absolute pressure.
– Absolute pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric pressure.
Issue: 01
• Differential Pressure
– difference between two pressures.
– An airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gauge.
• Gauge Pressure
– pressure measured from the existing (relative to) atmospheric pressure.
– Gauge Pressure = Absolute Pressure - Amospheric Pressure
• Dynamic Pressure
– aerodynamic force acting on the aircraft surfaces.
– Q = ½ ρV² (Q - Dynamic Pressure, ρ (rho) - density of air, V – velocity of
aircraft)
• Pitot Pressure
– Pressure which is collected in a pitot tube or pressure head.
• Static Pressure
– Ambient pressure collected by a static ports or vent.
Issue: 01
Earth Atmosphere
• Consist layer of air (gases) and retained by the earth's gravity.
• Air in contact with the earth is heated by conduction and radiation, its
density decreases as it starts rising. Pressure drop allows the air to expand
and temperature drop.
• Standard ICAO air temperature at MSL is 15°C.
• Lapse Rate
– The falls in temperature steadily at 1.98°C every 1000 ft with increasing
height up to the tropopause (36090ft) and remain at -56.5°C until
65800ft.
• Earth’s atmosphere is divided into layers.
– Lowest – Troposphere (0 ft – 36,090 ft)
• Tropopause – (36090 ft, -56.5°C)
– Middle – Stratosphere (36090 ft – 105000 ft) (36090 ft to 65800 ft temp
maintain -56.5°C)
– Upper – Chemosphere, ozonosphere, ionosphere and exosphere.
Issue: 01
• 0 ft – press 1013.25mb
temp 15°C.
• Temp drop 1.98°C every
1000ft.
• 0ft to 36090 - troposphere
• 36090ft – tropopause,
temp maintain -56.5°C
• 65800ft –temp start
increase.
• 36090ft to 105000ft –
stratosphere
• 105000ft – stratopause
press 8.680mb temp
-44.35°C
Issue: 01
Pressure Measuring Device

Consist of four part that is Detecting element, measuring element,
coupling element and indicating element.
• Detecting Element
– which detect any changes in pressure
• Measuring Element
– measures changes in pressure
– Made of phosphor-bronze, beryllium-bronze or beryllium-copper
– Capsule – Low pressure
– Diaphragm – Low pressure
– Bellow – Med pressure
– Bourdon Tube – High pressure
Issue: 01
• Coupling Element
– which couples (joint) the measuring element to the indicating
element.
– Mechanical Coupling
– Magnetic Coupling
– Fluid Coupling
• Indicating Element
– measures the value of the transmitted quantity using a pointer or
index rotating over a scale graduated in feet, knots, gallon, rpm etc.
Issue: 01
Issue: 01
Bourden Tube
• Consist of elliptical cross-sectioned
tube bent into a curve or C shape.
• When pressure is applied, the tube
attempts to straighten.
• The amount of the tube straightens
is proportional to the amount of
pressure inside the tube.
• For high pressure measurement
• Hairspring is used to prevent
backlash.
Issue: 01
Capsule
Made of two diaphragms placed together
and joined at their edges to form a chamber
which may be completely sealed or open to
pressure source.
Aneroid Capsule
• A sealed capsule made of beryllium-copper
or phosphor-bronze.
• This sealed capsule is partially evacuated or
vacuum.
• Decrease in ambient pressure will cause it
to expand.
• It is use for measuring absolute pressure.
Issue: 01
Bellows
• Extension of the corrugated diaphragm
principle.
• In operation it bears some resemblance
to a helical compression spring.
• Made of beryllium-copper or phosphor-
bronze
Issue: 01
Diaphragm
• A sheet of a semi-flexible material
anchored at its periphery.
– The sheet is corrugated is to
permit larger deflection.
• Made of beryllium-copper or
phosphor-bronze.
• Arranged so as to expose one side to
the pressure being measured.
• The deflections being transmitted to
pointer mechanism.
Issue: 01
Pressure Switch
• Known as precision switch/microswitch/limit switch.
• Switch which operate using pressure. i.e: oil, fuel, or pneumatic pressure.
• Switches are classified as;
– N/O (normally open contact)
• used to illuminate warning light when pressure exceeds a limit.
– N/C (normally close contact)
• used to turn on warning light when pressure falls below a predetermined
value.
Issue: 01
Issue: 01
Temperature measuring Instrument
• Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

• It can be measured by monitoring the expansion of different materials or
the change of resistance as in electrical type.
• Unit of measurement
– Fahrenheit, Celcius, Kelvin. (32°F, 0°C, 273K)
Types of Temperature Measuring
• Non-electrical
– Liquid Expansion - Common thermometer.
– Solid Expansion – Bimetallic strip thermometer
– Gas Expansion – Bourdon type thermometer
• Electrical
– Temperature Bulb,Wheatstone Bridge, Ratiometer and Thermocouple.
Issue: 01
Liquid Expansion
• Also called clinical thermometer.
• Enclosed glass tube filled with mercury or coloured alcohol.
• The expansion of the liquid due to temperature changes make it rise on a
linear scale.
Issue: 01
Metal Expansion
• Uses two dissimilar metals with difference expansion rate (Brass/invar and
Iron) joined together, shaped in the form of spiral and anchored at one end.
• Brass/invar have lower expansion rate than iron.
• Expansion rate causes by temperature, changes the amount of twist and
moves the pointer across the scale.
Issue: 01
Gas Expansion
• Consists of a liquid gas filled
temperature bulb connected to a
capillary tube and attach to a bourdon
tube.
• Expansion of gas will try to straighten
the bourdon tube which is connected to
pointer that will move across the scale
to indicate temperature.
Issue: 01
Resistance Bulb
• It has resistance wire of nickel or platinum wound on an insulated former and
sealed in a brass or stainless steel tube.
• In side the tube is filled with an inert gas to assist in heat transfer to the
resistance element. This bulb is immerse in the oil.
• Positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
• Nickel can be used up to 300°C and platinum up to 600°C.
• Two type of indicating principle, Wheatstone bridge or Ratiometer.
Issue: 01
Electrical
Wheatstone bridge
• When the bulb is heated its

resistance increase.
• When the resistance increase it
make the bridge unbalance thus
there is current flow between point
A and B.
• This will make the galvanometer
pointer move across the scale
which indicate the oil temperature.
Issue: 01
Nickel Sensing Element °C versus Ω

°C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Minus - 95.4 90.8 86.4 82.1 77.8 73.6 69.5 65.4 61.4
Plus 100 104.7 109.5 114.4 119.4 124.6 129.9 135.3 140.8 146.4
100 152.2 158.2 164.4 170.6 176.9 183.4 190.1 197.0 204.1 211.4
200 218.8 226.4 234.3 242.3 250.6 259.0 267.7 - - -
Platinum Sensing Element °C versus Ω
°C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Minus - 105.9 101.8 97.7 93.5 89.4 85.2 81.1 76.9 72.7
Plus 110.0 114.1 118.1 122.2 126.3 130.3 134.3 138.3 142.4 146.3
100 150.3 152.2 158.2 162.1 166.1 170.0 173.9 177.8 181.7 185.6
200 189.4 193.2 197.0 200.9 204.7 208.5 212.3 216.0 219.8 223.5
300 227.3 231.0 234.7 238.4 242.1 245.8 249.5 253.1 256.8 260.4
400 264.1 267.6 271.2 274.8 278.4 281.9 285.5 289.0 292.5 296.0
500 299.5 303.0 306.5 309.9 313.4 - - - - -
Issue: 01
Ratiometer
• Ratiometer type temperature indicating system consists of a sensing

element and a moving-coil indicator which unlike the conventional type it
has two coils rotating in a magnetic field.
• The design of the ratiometer depend on the manufacturer, normally three
method is used:-
– Parallel Coil, Cross Coil or Twin Former
• The ratiometer work by indicating the ratio between two current.
• One of the coils carries a reference current while the other is connected to
the resistance bulb and therefore caries a current proportional to the
resistance and temperature of the bulb.
• The ratio of these two currents determines the position of the complete coil
assembly and the pointer, the indication is not effected by variations in the
supply voltage.
Issue: 01
Parallel coil Cross Coil Twin Former
Issue: 01
Issue: 01
Thermocouple
• Thermocouple can be used as sensing element in Temperature Indicating
System.
• Thermocouple consist of two dissimilar metal welded together.
• It converts heat energy into electrical energy.
– When connected as figure bellow and heated, thermo-emf will be
produced.
• If temperature difference is maintain between the hot junction and cold
junction, current is caused to flow around the circuit.
• As the temperature increase the Voltage will also increase.
• This voltage can be measured by using milivoltmeter
• In order to indicate temperature the scale of milivoltmeter is change
into temperature scale.
Issue: 01
• This form of energy conversion is known as Seeback effect (Mr. Seeback

was the first man to demonstrated it in 1871).
• The magnitude of the EMF produced, depend on:-
– Type of metal used
– The difference in temperature between the hot and cold junction.
Issue: 01
METAL MAX TEMP APPLICATION

(˚C)
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Copper (Cu) Constantan (Ni 40% + Cu 60%) 400 Cylinder Head

Temperature
Iron (Fe) Constantan (Ni 40% + Cu 60%) 850
Chromel Alumel 1100 Exhaust Gas

(Ni 90% + Cr 10%) (Ni 95% + Al 2% + Mn 2% + Si 1% ) Temperature
Issue: 01
Issue: 01
Speed Measuring
Centrifugal Type
• Engine crankshaft driving the flexible drive shaft, in turn rotate the gear of
the flyweight shaft.
• The centrifugal force of the flywheel will pull the linkage and rotate the
sector gear to move pointer across the scale.
Issue: 01
Mechanical Drag Cup

• Flexible drive shaft rotate the
permanent magnet inside an
aluminum/copper drag cup.
• The permanent magnet produces a
rotating magnetic field which create
eddy current on the drag cup.
• The interaction of the two fields
causes a torque force to be applied
to the drag cup which rotate it
against a spring tension to move the
pointer.
Issue: 01
Electrical Tachometer
Tachometer Generator
• Consist of two component that is:-
– Transmitter - Called Tachometer Generator and its a 3 phase Ac
generator.
– Receiver - Is the indicator which indicate the engine RPM. Consist of
synchronous motor which turns the permanent magnet inside the
copper/aluminum drag cup.
• Advantage:
– No electrical power.
– No drive cable
Issue: 01
Issue: 01
Tachometer Probe
• It a stainless steel, hermetically-sealed probe comprises of:-
– a permanent magnet
– a pole piece
– a number of cupro-nickel or nickel-chromium coils around a
ferromagnetic core.
• Separate windings (from five to seven depending on the type of probe)
provide outputs to the indicator and other equipment requiring engine
speed data.
• The probe is flange-mounted on the engine at station where the speed
sample is required and locating plug is provided in the mounting flange for
correct orientation.
• When in position the pole pieces are in close proximity to the teeth of a
gear wheel (phonic wheel) the magnetic field will be inline. As the gear
wheel which is driven at the same speed as the compressor shaft or fan
shaft turn it will disturb the magnetic field from the permanent magnet
thus induce voltage in the coil.
Issue: 01
• This probe sense the speed or RPM and it output is send to servo type indicator.
Issue: 01
Mechanical Measurement
• Accelerometer
– Fitted to aircraft to sense the aircraft acceleration.
• Synchroscope
– Assist pilot to synchronize a twin-engine aircraft’s propeller.
• Torquemeter
– Measure torque on a propeller or rotor shaft.
• Vibration meter
– Monitored engine vibration or Health Usage and Monitoring System.
Issue: 01
Accelerometer
•Accelerometer is a device that gives an indication, usually in the form of a
voltage that is proportional to the acceleration to which it is subjected.
•The operation of an accelerometer is based on the property of INERTIA
(Newton's First Law of Motion).
• Consists of a mass that is free to slide along the sensitive axis within the case.
•The movement of the mass is limited by springs. When the case is accelerated,
the mass, because of its inertia, tends to remain stationary.
•When the stretch of the springs overcomes the inertia of the mass, the springs
cause the mass to stop moving with respect to the case.
•The displacement of the mass with respect to the case is directly proportional
to the acceleration of the case.
•When the case stops accelerating, the springs return the mass to its zero
position (the reference position).
Issue: 01
•The output of the accelerometer from the pick-off is in the form of variable
frequency, voltage or phase proportional to acceleration.
• The pick-off that can be used is in the form of resistive, capacitive inductive,
piezoelectric or E&I transformer.
Issue: 01
Synchroscope.
•This indication is important because it provide pilot with a mean to
synchronise the aircraft propeller speed thus reduce vibration.
•This vibration can have an adverse effect on structures, components, crew
fatigue, passenger comfort etc
•Vibration and noise can be reduced by synchronising/synchrophasing the
propellers.
•Synchronising is adjusting the engine so that all engines run at the same rpm,
but the propellers might be at any angle relative to each other (phase angle).
•Synchrophasing is ensuring that all propellers run at the same rpm (as in
synchronising) but at a slight relative difference in phase angle - which is fixed.
Issue: 01
• The synchroscope consist of:-

– Induction motor with three-phase star-wound laminated stator and rotor.
– Tachometer generator of the master and slave engine.
Issue: 01
Torque Indicating
• It measure the pressures created by a torque meter system. This pressures
being interpreted as power available at the propeller/rotor shaft.
• Basically it a twisting action on a shaft when subjected to torque. It is
calculated as a perpendicular force times the distance to the center of the
shaft. It can only be produced if the shaft being driven is resisted by
something (propeller or rotor)
• The torque meter system forms part of the engine itself and is usually
built-in with the reduction gear assembly between the crankshaft and
propeller shaft.
• The construction of a torque meter system depends on the type of engine.
Issue: 01
When torque is put through

the helical gears so the
inclined planes of the teeth
mean that there is a tendency
for the gears to move in an
axial direction, while they are
rotating.
The output shaft is constrained
in bearings so it cannot move
(it rotates of course), but the
helical driving gear carrying
the torque meter piston has
axial freedom to move.
Issue: 01
• As the torque is increased so

the helical driving gears will
move axially to the left.
• This movement moves the
torque meter piston to the left
increasing hydraulic pressure to
the pressure transducer.
Issue: 01
Vibration
• A simple engine vibration indicating system normally used an
accelerometer input as sensor but for the more advance system it requires
an input from engine speed system
Issue: 01
Issue: 01
END
Issue: 01
Issue: 01

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For Training Purpose Only

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Instrument Classification and Layout

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Flight and Navigational Instruments

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Categories/group according to operation

• Pressure measuring instruments

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Basic ‘T’ Panel

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

P1, P2, P3 Instrument Panel

This arrangement is fitted normally on large aircraft

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Electronic/Glass Cockpit Panel

• Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Issue: 01 AKD20803 Basic Instrument

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Pressure Measuring Device

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Temperature measuring Instrument

• Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

• When the bulb is heated its

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Nickel Sensing Element °C versus Ω

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

• Ratiometer type temperature indicating system consists of a sensing

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Parallel coil Cross Coil Twin Former

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology