Principles and Strategies

of Teaching
Prof. ROSELLE M. BELTRAN
Lecturer
What is teaching?
 a process of interacting; tutoring or educating
 stands for pedagogy, training and nurturing
 the process of engaging students in activities that will
enable them to acquire knowledge, skills, as well as
worthwhile values and attitudes
 an aggregate of organized strategies and activities
aimed at inducing learning
 overall cluster of activities associated with a teacher,
and inducing explaining, questioning, demonstrating
and motivating
What is teaching?
 is both science and art; science as it is based on
psychological research that identifies cause – effect
relationships between teaching and learning; art as it
shows how those relationships are implemented in
successful and artistic teaching
 involves values, experiences, insights, imagination and
appreciation --- the “stuff” that cannot be easily
observed or measured (Greene)
 involves the interplay among such factors as the
teacher, the learner, the teaching content and
strategies as this diagram shows:
“ TEACHERS like leaves everywhere
abound
but effective teachers like fruits are
rarely found.”
WHAT MAKES EFFECTIVE TEACHERS?

 Classroom Management
 develop good managerial techniques
 Direct Instruction
 clear, systematic method of teaching called explicit teaching
 Time
 provide students with relevant academic activities on task
 Questioning
 focuses on both facts and academic content
WHAT MAKES EFFECTIVE TEACHERS?

 Comprehension instruction
 emphasize independent learning & learning to learn

 Level of Cognitive Instruction

 Move toward HOTS & independent learning

 Grouping
 Group students for individualized & small group instruction
The Triadic Elements of Teaching
THE LEARNER
THE TEACHER
·most important element of
·a key factor in any teaching-learning teaching
process ·the natural characteristics of
·constructs well designed plan to students – age, maturity, grade
achieve objectives of the lesson level, health, abilities, family
·prepares learning environment background, experiences and
·selects appropriate
motivation, and his/her culture,
content/strategies /learning
including values, attitudes and
activities
tradition which influence the
·adjust
contents/activities/strategies/
teaching-learning process to a very
learning environment to the learners large extent

THE CONTENT
TEACHING STRATEGIES

·the choice of content/subject

matter to be taught to achieve
desired objectives of the lesson
·the selection of appropriate
instructional materials/technology
to facilitate learning
·the use of appropriate/effective
methods and strategies of teaching
to arrive at the desired outcome
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

 PRINCIPLE

 coined from the Latin term “princeps”

 a rule for guiding the ship of education

so that it will reach the port
designated by the philosophy of
education
 PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TEACHING
(John Dewey)
 Teaching is good when it is based on the
psychology of learning.
 Teaching is good when it is well-planned.
 Teaching is good when it provides learning

experiences that will ensure understanding.

 Teaching is good when there is provision to meet

individual differences.
 Teaching is good when the learner is made

conscious of the goals or aims to be accomplished.

 Teaching is good when it utilizes the past

experiences of the learner.

 PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TEACHING
(John Dewey)

 Teaching is good when the learner is

stimulated to think and to reason.
 Teaching is good when it is governed by

democratic principles.
 Teaching is good when the method used is

supplemented by another
method & instructional devices.
 Teaching is good when drill or review &

evaluation are made as an integral part of the

teaching and learning process.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
SUCCESFUL TEACHING

1.Educate the whole child.

2. Keep the program informal, flexible & democratic.
3. Capitalize upon present learners' interest.
4. Let motivation be intrinsic.
5. Make learning experience vivid and direct.
6. Stress problem solving as the basis of functional
learning.
7. Provide for the achievement of lasting student
satisfaction.
8. Let the curriculum mirror the community.
Principles Underlying Instruction
 Principle of Context – learning depends largely
on the setting particularly including use of
materials in which the process goes on with this
scales of application:
◦ textbook only
◦ textbook with a supplementary material
◦ non-academic and current materials (newspaper,
clippings, articles, magazine)
◦ multi-sensory aids
◦ field experience; personal, social and community
understanding
Principles Underlying Instruction
 Principle of Focus – instruction must be
organized about a focus or direction, following
these scales of application, and where focus is
established by:
◦ page assignment in textbook
◦ announced topic together with page or chapter
references
◦ broad concept or a problem to be solved, or a skill to
be acquired to carry on understanding
Principles Underlying Instruction
 Principle of Socialization – instruction depends
upon the social setting in which it is done, with
these scales of application and where social
patterns are characterized by:
◦ submission
◦ contribution
◦ cooperation
Principles Underlying Instruction
 Principle of Individualization – instruction must
progress in terms of the learner’s own purposes,
aptitudes, abilities and experimental procedures,
following these scales of application and where
individualization may be done through:
◦ differential performance in uniform tasks
◦ homogenous grouping
◦ control plan
◦ individual instruction
◦ large units with optional related activity
◦ individual undertakings, stemming from and contributing to
the joint undertaking of the group of learners
Principles Underlying Instruction
 Principle of Sequence – instruction depends on effective
ordering of a series of learning tasks who moves
◦ from meaningless emergence of meaning
◦ from immediate remote
◦ from concrete symbolic
◦ from crude discriminating
and where sequence comes through
◦ logical succession of blocks of content (lesson/courses)
◦ knitting learning/lesson/course together by introductions,
previews, pretests, reviews
◦ organized in terms of readiness
◦ organized in terms of lines of emerging meanings
Principles Underlying Instruction
 Principle of Evaluation – learning is heightened
by a valid and discriminating appraisal of all its
aspects, following these scales of application:
◦ evaluation or direct results only
◦ evaluation related to objectives and process
◦ evaluation on total learning process and results
Management of Instruction: Instruction
may be well-managed using any of these classification
of students:
◦ Homogenous learners are classified/grouped in terms of
similar elements; such as age, abilities, interests,
physical characteristic, etc.
◦ Heterogeneous, no definite bases for clustering or
putting learners together: could be on random
sampling, alphabetized family names, time of
enrollment, etc.
◦ Non-graded, no fixed grade/level assignment of
children. They come to the center of learning by small
groups or individually depending on their pacing in the
accomplishment of tasks.
Difference among the terms technique,
strategy, method, and approach
Technique
◦ the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out
the procedures of teaching
◦ a teacher’s unique way, style or act of executing the
stages of a teaching method
Strategy
◦ a set of decisions on what learning activities to provide
to achieve and objective
◦ an overall or general design of how the lesson will be
executed or delivered
◦ can be a substitute to methodology
Difference among the terms technique,
strategy, method, and approach
Technique
◦ the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out
the procedures of teaching
◦ a teacher’s unique way, style or act of executing the
stages of a teaching method
Strategy
◦ a set of decisions on what learning activities to provide
to achieve and objective
◦ an overall or general design of how the lesson will be
executed or delivered
◦ can be a substitute to methodology
Difference among the terms technique,
strategy, method, and approach
Approach
◦ a set of correlative assumptions or viewpoints dealing with
nature of teaching and learning
◦ the procedure that employs a variety of strategies to assess
better understanding and effective learning
Method
◦ a series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher
and pupils to achieve the desired objectives of the lesson
◦ the established way or procedure of guiding the mental
processes in mastering the subject matter
◦ a well-planned step-by-step procedure that is directed towards
desired learning outcomes
Methods: Purposes, Principles, Factors
to consider, Classification
Purposes of Methods
◦ make learning more efficient
◦ enable the learner to think logically
◦ facilitate smooth transition from activity to
another
◦ serve as a guide in preparing all the needed
materials, tasks and equipment
Purposes of Methods

◦ approximate time to be allotted for each activity

to avoid waste of time and lapses
◦ make planning clear and precise, to prevent
confusion, unnecessary delays and time wastage
◦ help in planning for assessment and evaluation of
the lesson
◦ add to a feeling of confidence and security for
the teacher and students
Principles of Selecting Methods

◦ must be based on sound principle, laws, and

theories of learning
◦ must assist learners to define purposes and
motive
◦ must originate from the learners’ past
experiences
◦ must suit individual differences, needs,
interests, and developmental maturity
◦ must bring the learners to the world of
diverse learning experiences
Principles of Selecting Methods

◦ must stimulate the learners to think critically,

analytically and creatively
◦ must be challenging
◦ must be flexible
◦ must be consistent with the requirements of
the objectives
◦ must be appropriate with the content
◦ must give way to varied students’ participation
◦ must consider to be undertaken to ensure
gainful learning
Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method
◦ Learner’s ability – first and foremost consideration
based on the nature/characteristics, age, maturity,
ability, etc.
◦ Teacher’s ability – must be personally and
professionally qualified to teach
◦ Objective – expected outcome of the lesson in terms
of knowledge/skills and attitude
◦ Subject matter – content to be taken so that the
desired outcome will be achieved
◦ Pre-requisite learning – student’s previous
experiences that can help facilitate acquisition of
new knowledge, skills and attitudes
Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method

◦ Classroom set-up – must be inviting to students and

conducive to learning
◦ School facilities/equipment/technologies – the
availability of the needed equipment, technologies,
tools for learning found in the right places
◦ Time allotment – specified target time frame for
chosen activities properly distributed to the entire
period
◦ Safety precautions – students should feel that they are
safe and out of danger in the school
◦ School Climate – learner should feel the warmth of the
teachers and classmates
A Comparison Between Direct and
Indirect Approaches
Direct Approach
 makes use of expository
strategies
 aimed at mastery of knowledge
and skills
 teacher-oriented
 direct transmission of
information from teacher
 teacher-controlled
 highly structured
 content-oriented
 learner is passive, receives
ready information for the
teacher
Indirect Approach
 makes use of exploratory
strategies
 aimed at generating
knowledge for experience
 learner-centered
 students search for
information with teacher’s
supervision
 learner controlled
 flexibly organized
 experience-oriented
 learner is active in search of
information
Methods of Teaching Used in the Direct
Instruction Approach
1. Deductive Method: Follows these steps in instruction:
◦ Statement of the Problem: Teacher tells what the problem is
◦ Statement of the Generalization: Recall of rule/principle/generalization
that may help solve problems identified
◦ Inferring: Looking for the principle/rule/generalization that fits the
solution of the problem
◦ Verification: Establishing validity using references/materials
2. Showing Method/Direct Method: a teacher-centered strategy that
uses teacher explanation and modeling combined with student
practice and feedback to teach concept and skills; follows these
steps:
◦ Introduction: review of prior learning
◦ Presentation: explaining the new concept/modeling the skill
◦ Guided practice with necessary feedback: practice exercises to firm learned
skills
◦ Independent Practice
◦ more practice of the skill on concept learned for retention and transfer
Methods of Teaching Used in the Direct
Instruction Approach
3.Lecture-Discussion/Expository Method: designed to keep learners understand
relationships among organized body of knowledge; follows these steps: 
I. Planning
 Identifying goals

 Diagnosing student background

 Structuring activities

 Preparing advance organizers

II. Implementing
 Introduction –

defining the purpose of the lesson, sharing of objectives and overview to help
students see the organization of the lesson
 Presentation

◦ defining/explaining major ideas

◦ comprehension monitoring: determining whether or not student understand
concepts and ideas
◦ integration: exploring interconnections between important ideas
◦ review and closure
◦ summarizing the lecture
Methods of Teaching Used in the Direct
Instruction Approach
4. Demonstration Method: a tell and show method;
follow these steps:
I. Preparation
 motivation

 identify objectives/problem/procedure

II. Explanation of Concepts/Principles/Process/ Theory,

etc.
III. Demonstration of concept/process by the teacher
while students observe and take down notes
IV. Discussion of students’ observations
 answering problems
V. Verification/justification/conclusion
 Methods of Teaching Used in the Direct
Instruction Approach
5. Concept Teaching Methods
 may either be the concept attainment method or concept formation method
 concept attainment focuses on teaching pupils the concepts that the teacher has
selected for study and follows these steps:
◦ introduce the concept by name
◦ present examples
◦ introduce non-examples
◦ present a mixture of examples and non-examples and ask questions which are
the correct examples
◦ ask pupils to define the concept
◦ ask pupils to find examples of the concept
 concept formation method:
◦ focuses on the process of the concept development/thinking skills
development
◦ follows three basic steps:
 teachers provides stimulus in the form of a question or problem
 pupils provide a number of answers and categorize them
 pupils label the categorized responses
Methods of Teaching Used in the
Indirect Instruction Approach
 Inductive Method Strategies: It is a discovery
learning strategy where lesson progresses
from observations to generalizations;
involves many observable cases or instances
that can be compared by the learners where
students from own
conclusions/generalizations/rules/principles
or formulas; used when the generalizations
are important enough to justify the time
spent to the lesson.
Methods of Teaching Used in the
Indirect Instruction Approach
2. Inquiry/Problem Solving Method: engages learners in critical thinking analysis
and problem solving/investigate work; follows these steps:
I. Presentation and clarification of a problem/issue of inquiry
 presentation of objectives

 statement of the problem, issue or query

 clarification of the problem

II. Formulation of Hypotheses

 giving tentative solutions to the problem/query

 clarify hypotheses

III. Gathering Data

 select references/sources of data/information

 appraise and organized the needed information to answer the problem

solving
IV. Testing Hypothesis
V. Formulation of Conclusions
VI. Application
Solving problems using rule/principle etc. in new situations
Methods of Teaching Used in the
Indirect Instruction Approach
3. Laboratory/Investigative Method: provides hands-on experiences about
materials or facts obtained from research; investigation or experiences;
follows these steps:
I. Preparatory
 Motivation

 Orientation to the work/activity

 Presentation of materials

 Precautionary measures

II. Supervised Work Period/Laboratory

 Students work on the problem

 Teacher supervises the students’ work

III. Culminating Activities

 Reporting of group work/findings

 Discussion of the process/findings

 Formulation of generalization, rule, concepts, etc.

 Application of the discussed concepts/generalization to new situation

Methods of Teaching Used in the
Indirect Instruction Approach
4. Discovery Teaching Method
 Teacher facilitates discovery

 Learners participate actively in the learning process

 Learning depends on students’ own insights’, reflections and experiences

(discovery learning)
 May use either the inductive discovery and deductive discovery, each one

following steps: 
Steps followed in the Inductive Discovery method:
 Observe and discuss specific examples

 Identify and describe common elements of features

 Discuss other examples and note common elements

◦ Check them 
Steps followed in the Deductive Discovery method:
 Present an idea that can be verified against evidences

 Learners gather/collect finds supporting evidences or examples

 Reasoning/Justifying why a certain evidence found is supported to the main

idea
 Students continue searching/finding other evidences to support given idea
Methods of Teaching Used in the
Indirect Instruction Approach
5. Project Method
Features
 A significant practical unit of activity
 Involves planning and carrying out of
the planned activities
 Students compete certain task in a
natural manner
 Involves the use of physical materials
to complete the unit of experience
 Develops sense of cooperation,
responsibility to complete a task
 Energizes students to evaluate own
and other’s works (projects)
objectively based on developed
criteria
Steps
I. Purposing
 Statement of objectives of the
projects
 Explain the nature of the project
 Teacher and students decide on the
activities cooperatively
I. Executing
 Students carry out the activities as
planned under the guidance of the
teacher
I. Evaluation
 Viewing of finished project
 Evaluation by teacher and students
based on some decided criteria for
the project evaluation
Methods of Teaching Used in the
Indirect Instruction Approach
6. Discussion
 a question or problem is considered and shifted by

the class in order to reach a conclusion

 class setting may be formal or informal, with the

teacher having more or less a non-role

 How/When used:

◦ Multiple opinions shared; everyone examines and responds

◦ Question stimulate and focus thinking
◦ Multiple views are encouraged
 Usually student-led, but may also be leaderless or
teacher-led.
Other Indirect Models/Strategies in Teaching
 Problem-Based Instruction (PBI)
◦ The essence of PBI consists of presenting students
with authentic/meaningful situation that can serve as
springboards for investigations and inquiry.
◦ Is highly effective for teaching higher-level thinking
processes involving:
 Deriving questions on problem but socially important and
personally meaningful to students
 Interdisciplinary focus on a particular subject but
solutions requires students to deliver into many subjects
 Authentic investigation necessitates students to pursue
investigation that seek real problems
 Production of artifacts and exhibits requires students to
construct products in the form of artifacts and exhibits
that represents their solutions
Other Indirect Models/Strategies in Teaching
 Metacognitive Strategy
◦ Students are trained to become aware of and control their own learning
through the metacognitive process.
◦ Used when students:
 plan what strategies to use to meet goal
 decide what resources are needed
 monitor own progress
 evaluate progress

 Reflective Teaching Method

◦ Process that enables individual to continually team from own
experiences by considering alternative interpretations of
experiences, actions, discussions, beliefs, using introspection and
analysis
◦ Used when students:
 Have already acquired concrete experiences
 Analyze these experiences and form abstractions/generalizations
 Apply generalizations to actual situation
Other Indirect Models/Strategies in Teaching
 Jigsaw Method
◦ A group activity for learning a particular materials
◦ How/When used:
 Groups are formed
 Learning materials is divided into sections
 One member takes care of a section of the material
 Each member meets with those from other groups who
are assigned to a similar section
 Members discussion/work on the material and return to
their previous group inform others in their group
 Students are tested after the “puzzle” is completed
Other Indirect Models/Strategies in Teaching
 Brainstorming
◦ a strategy that utilizes pupils’ knowledge and
ideas;
◦ helps pupils explore creative alternatives;
◦ provides environment where pupils are free to
contribute ideas without fear of ridicule or failure
◦ How/When used:
 Pupils are presented with problem or situation.
 They are encouraged to share as many ideas as
they can generate.
 All ideas are accepted and recorded, reviewed,
discussed and organized for investigation.
Other Indirect Models/Strategies in Teaching

 Students Team Achievement Strategy (STAS)

◦ A type of group activity in which students interact
together to master a specific academic material.
◦ How/When used:
 Information is presented.
 Students are divided into learning teams to
mater lesson using worksheets through
discussion, tutoring, and quizzing one another.
 Scores from the tests are recorded; and if there
is improvement from the previous achievement
score of the team, additional points are given.
Teacher Questioning Strategies
 Questioning is:
◦ An important key technique in teaching
◦ Used for a variety of purposes, such as to ---
 Stimulate thinking
 Arouse interest and curiosity
 Review learned content
 Elicit questions from students
 Promote thought and understanding of ideas
 Change the mood/tempo, direction of
discussion
 Encourage reflection and self-evaluation
Types of Question
a. Questions according to thinking process
 Low-level questions –
◦ Factual + memory questions
◦ Require only one correct answer
Example:
 Who is the Father of Kindergarten?
 How many regions comprise the Philippines?

 High-level questions –
◦ Go beyond memory and factual information
◦ Require varied points of view/opinions/ abstraction/answers/
challenging and stimulating questions
Example:
 Why can’t we go away from the traditional strategies?
 In what classroom activity would constructivism be demonstrated?
Types of Question
b. Questions according to answer requested
 Cognitive-Memory Questions
◦ Referred to as low-level questions
◦ Have one correct and best answer
◦ Used to drill vocabulary, spelling, mathematical facts, and oral skills
◦ Usually start with what, who, when, where
◦ Require short and specific answers
 Divergent Thinking Questions
◦ Associated with high-level thinking questions
◦ Have many acceptable answers
◦ Used to encourage creative thinking and discovery learning
◦ Usually requires synthesis thinking by combining related ideas learned
 Example: What could you do if ___________? / What do you think about
___________?
 Convergent Thinking Questions
◦ Require application of information and analysis of factors involved
 Example: If “A” is this. What will happen to “B”?
Types of Question
c. Open-Discussion Questions
 Eliciting Questions
◦ Used to encourage initial response
◦ Encourage students’ participation
◦ Rekindle a lagging or drying our discussion
 Probing Questions
◦ Seeks to: -
 expand ideas
 justify given ideas
 clarify ideas
 Evaluative-Thinking Questions
◦ Requires students to judge, value, choose, criticize, defend, or justify
some information
 Closure-Seeking Questions
◦ Used to help students make conclusions, concepts, rules, formulas,
and solution or plans for investigating problems
Types of Question
d. Other Questioning Strategies
Observing Strategy
Recalling Strategy
Inferring Strategy
Analyzing Strategy
Verifying Strategy
Predicting Strategy
Evaluating Strategy
Synthesizing/Applying Strategy
What did you see/observe/feel?
When did it happen?
What do you think happened here?
How many processes were
involved?
How many processes were
involved?
What will happen if ---?
Which one is similar to your idea?
Why?
Should the city build a dam? Why?
 Tips on Asking Questions: Ask
questions that are:
◦ Stimulating/challenging/thought provoking
◦ Within the students level/abilities
◦ Relevant/timely
◦ Properly sequenced
◦ Specific/clear/simple
◦ Varied
The Instructional Act Requirements
a. Instructional Objective(s)
 a statement of what the learner is to be able to do upon completion
of the learning experience.
 a demonstrable behavioral change in the learner.
 referred to as behavioral or performance objectives.
 may be expressed in statement or question form.
 must be:
◦ S - specific
◦ M – measurable
◦ A – attainable
◦ R – result-oriented
◦ T – time-bounded
a. Instructional Objective(s)
 Three elements to consider in writing instructional
objectives:
◦ performance – behavior that the learner is expected to
display
◦ the condition(s) under which the behavior is to occur
◦ the criterion of success – the standard against which the
learners’ performance is evaluated
 May contain either or both of the following in a
lesson
◦ Knowledge Content, which may be –
 Cognitive – knowledge or concepts/principle/facts
 Affective – attitude/values
 Psychomotor – motor skills
a. Instructional Objective(s)
 Skills content, which may include one or a
combination of the following in a lesson:
 Work Habits, discussions, reading, writing, note-
writing
 Dictionary reference and library skills
 Reporting, research and computer skills
 Interpreting skills for maps, charts, tables, graphs
 Inquiry skills – problem solving, experimenting,
hypothesizing
 Social skills – respecting rules, accepting criticism,
maturity
 Cooperative and competitive skills – leadership and
participation
Taxonomy of Objectives
Psychomotor Taxonomy
Cognitive Taxonomy (involves manipulation of
(involves mental process) materials through motor
control)
Affective Taxonomy
(involves feelings/ emotions/
attitudes/values)

 Knowledge or  Perception  Receiving: show

recall of learned  Set  Responding
 Comprehension  Guided response  Valuing
 Application  Mechanism  Organization
 Analysis  Complex own  Characterization
 Synthesis response
 Evaluation  Adaptation
 Origination
b. Lesson Plans
 one of the most important aspects of instructional planning,
considered as the blue print of what the teacher and students
intend to accomplish after a teaching-learning episode
 written outline of instructional objectives, activities, methods
and strategies on how stated objectives will be achieved with the
help of appropriate instructional materials to be used
 lesson plans vary in type:
◦ brief – an outline of teacher’s activities usually done by neophyte teachers
◦ detailed – all activities, teacher’s questions and students’ expected
answers are reflected and usually done by pre-service teachers
◦ semi-detailed – include all activities, questions, and statements
Suggested Formation/Parts of a Lesson Plan
I. Objectives 
II. Subject Matter
Topics/Concepts
Values Integrated
References
Materials (include one or a combination of written materials, audio-visual, computer
materials, models, charts, etc.) 
III. Learning Activities
A. Preparatory Activities
Drill; Review; Introduction; or Motivation
B. Developmental Activities
1. Presentation of the Lesson
2. Discussion/Analysis
3. Practice Drill/Try-Out Activities
4. Abstraction/Generalization
5. Exercises to fix skills learned
C. Application: may be in the form of demonstration, debates, tests, exhibits to
determined what has been learned (should be related to the present lesson)
D. Evaluation 
IV. Assignment/Agreement
Determining Appropriate Learning
Activities
I. Learning Activities Described
 Consists of all classroom action and interaction that happen during the
teaching-learning process, done to achieve the objectives for certain
lesson to attain certain lesson or to promote learning and retention
 Made up tasks that students engage in order to learn, including those

that
◦ Accomplish routines (keeping room space safe, collecting papers,
distributing materials, etc.)
◦ Make the students ready for the new lesson
◦ Develop student’s knowledge, skills and attitudes as related to
lesson objectives
◦ Enhance or reinforce and evaluate newly-acquired learning
 Should consider integration appropriate sequence, variety,

meaningfulness and immediacy in relation to their use

Determining Appropriate Learning
Activities
II. Types of Learning Activities
 Introductory/preliminary/opening activities:
◦ refer to the task that the teacher provides the
learners to prepare them for the new lesson;
◦ may be done by:
 gaining students attention (interest to the
lesson)
 informing them of the lesson objective
 recalling of prerequisite learning
 Developmental activities:
◦ refer to all the tasks that learners engage in to attain the
objectives for which the present lesson is taught
◦ considered as the heart of good instruction
◦ usually carried out by a presentation of the new
information, considering
 appropriateness of modes or methods of teaching used
 high involvement of students
 use of varied thought – stimulating and interest –
maintaining tasks
 logical organization and connection among the contents
of the lesson and point – to – point smooth transitions
 the relation of the new lesson to the previous lesson
 clarity of presentation
 Concluding Activities should be kept briefly
and tightly focused on content and should
involve most pupils: include such activities as
synthesis of the lesson, highlights concepts
learned, evaluation of learning, and/or
reinforcement of the lesson taught
Determining Appropriate Learning
Activities
III. Principles in Selecting Learning Activities
 Learning activities should relate back to the lesson objective; in all cases,
they should contribute to the attainment of the lesson objectives.
 Learning activities must suit the learner’s level in terms of needs, interest,
experience, comprehension, ability, and even number.
 Learning activities must also jibe with the teaching method used.
 Learning activities must also suit the subject matter at hand.
 Learning activities should fit the time and context of the teaching situation.
 Learning activities have to be interactive that is, they should not only be
cognitive development focused but also values – and – skills – enhancing to
ensure a holistic kind of learner development.
 Learning activities must also be multi-level varied, and well-sequenced.
 Learning activities should consider the laws of learning (readiness, effect,
exercise) and the principles of multi-sense appeal, and the development of
values and mental, and motor skills and abilities.
 Learning activities should engage students with the most direct experience
possible that is, they must allow students to utilize all their senses.
Determining Appropriate Instructional
Materials and Tools
1. What Instructional Materials and tools are for
 to enrich instruction through added/unique dimensions
 to make instruction more accessible to a greater number

of students
 to make instruction more effective at less cost
 to accommodate various student learning styles for

improved learning
 to increase student interest and enthusiasm for learning
 to present abstract ideas into more concrete and

contextualized terms
Determining Appropriate Instructional
Materials and Tools
2. Types of Instructional Materials and tools
Visuals– representations of objects, persona or events in realistic or
precise expression on canvass, paper or other surfaces, include the
following:
◦Still pictures/photographic prints – include textbook, periodicals and similar
printed materials; serve as efficient substitute for firsthand experience; are
relatively cheap and convenient to use
◦Graphics – make use of symbols representing the phenomena they portray – come
in many forms; maps, diagrams, charts, tables, graphs, posters, cartoons that
illustrate lessons for better understanding, with less use of unnecessary teacher
talk
◦Realia – refers to all objects as they exist in natural context
◦Models – refer to objects that are constructed when realia are unavailable
◦Drawings – may be the likeness of the real things or symbolic representations such
as maps, charts, graphs, cartoons
◦Visual display devices – come in the form of chalkboards, marker boards, flip
charts, bulletin boards are valuable in emphasizing the major points of a lesson
◦Projection devices – may be slide or film strips projector or opaque/overhead
projectors which provide colorful and realistic production of original subjects
Determining Appropriate Instructional
Materials and Tools
2. Types of Instructional Materials and tools
 Sound recordings (audio media) – include phonograph
records, audio tapes, compact discs, radio, recorder
and player that has playback capacity

 Film, television, and computer-mediated programs are

mostly audio-visual media that magnify visual images
 
 Computer and internet – can be used even in the
absence of teacher; allow one to learn at his/her own
pace; provide wide range of online information
Determining Appropriate Instructional
Materials and Tools
3. Principles in Selection of Instructional Materials
 Appropriateness of Instructional Materials: must be appropriate to the 
◦ objectives and content of the lesson
◦ ability and interest level of learners
 Authenticity: they must relate accurate, up to date, and reliable
information

 Meaningfulness: they must be meaningful and stimulating to the

learners
 
 Cost – effectiveness: this means that the cost of media utilization must
diminish as the number of students using them increases
 
 Breadth: they must encompass varying group of learners and satisfy
many different purpose
Determining Appropriate Evaluation
Instruments
1. The concept of evaluation
 aims basically to determine student mastery
of what has been taught
 is a two-part process:
a. measuring pupils’ individual performance
b. judging how well a pupil has performed:
1. norm reference assessment, where
pupils’ performance is compared to the
average performance of his/her
classmates;
2. criterion – reference assessment, where the rating is
based on comparison of a students’ performance with a pre-
determined standard-instrument used for evaluation may be:

◦ informal evaluation – depends on teacher’s

observations of a variety of pupil performances as they
do learning tasks, complete projects, or interact with
others; requires teachers to make judicious inferences
about what learners can and cannot do; may use this
question as a basic guide in selecting informal
assessment techniques, “Will the procedure provide the
information/need to make an adequate judgment about
child’s performance?
 formal evaluation – includes teacher-prepared test and
commercially-available standardized tests, such as rating
scales, learning checklists, essay tests, true-false tests,
multiple-choice tests, completion tests, matching tests, etc.
◦ may also be used to:
 assess progress of individual learners
 evaluate own performance of teacher
 refine instructional plans and/or provide instruction to
clear up understandings of certain topics taught
 provide basis for instructional planning when the same
content tested is taught again
 has a need for good record keeping to monitor the
progress/development of learners overtime
3. When to use some types
 
 use informal evaluation tools when looking for specific

behaviors that learners are expected to demonstrate

 use rating scales and checklist when judgment about several

levels of performance quality is needed

 use essay tests especially for upper grade levels when

determining students to put together isolated process of

information in meaningful way
 use true-false test when covering broad range of content

 use matching test if pupils’ grasp of association is to be tested

 use completion test sample only a cross-section of content and

to eliminate guessing among pupils

What evaluation type to use during
the instructional act
a. Prior to Instruction: Pre assessment
◦ done to determine the learner’s entry
behavior (what knowledge/ skills/attitudes
they already know or still need to know)
before objectives are set or before
instruction begins for maximum purposes
◦ involves use of such instruments as
readiness test, aptitude test, pre-test on
course objectives, or observational
techniques
What evaluation type to use during
the instructional act
b. During Instruction: Formulative Evaluation
◦ provides on-going feedback to the teachers
and students regarding their success or
failure during instruction
◦ helpful in deciding whether changes in
subsequent learning experiences are needed
◦ helpful in determining specific learning
errors that need correction
◦ usually makes use of paper and pencil tests
and observational methods
What evaluation type to use during
the instructional act
c. After Instruction: Summative Evaluation
 is provided to determine
 how well students have learned/attained
instructional objectives
 what rating the students deserve to get
 how ell instruction was done
 includesthe use of achievement tests,
rating scales, or evaluation of students
products
 Classroom Management
1. Classroom Management Concept
focuses on what a teacher must do to organize
and manage time, materials and space efficiently
and smoothly to prevent potential classroom
problems or reduce their frequency
involves aspects as
organization, teacher’s behavior and classroom
organizational patterns (e..g. how teacher
structures classroom activities) and discipline
includesclassroom climate, which has to do with
the emotional tone and quantity of human
relationships in the classroom
 1. Classroom Management Concept
 helps both students and teachers as it –
 enhances mental and social development of learners in a room that is
confidence building and where children grow in their competence as human
beings
 facilitates the achievement of instructional goals/objectives, which,
however, requires the development of a systematic way of organizing
classroom activities
 provides intellectual and physical freedom within specified limits, that is,
learning knowledge, skills and value without having to fear or be
embarrassed by mistakes committed but also guided by rules and regulation
 allows children to develop skills of self direction and independence: requires
a good balance between permissiveness and highly-directed instruction
 works towards a warm, but firm, relationship between teachers and
students, which means that while teachers extend “human-ness” to
children, they still maintain the basic firmness needed/wanted in teacher-
student relationship
 includes management of time, discipline, physical environment, routines and
procedures, and instructional management
 Classroom Management
2. Physical Environment
 refers to that kind of classroom environment that permits orderly movements,
reduced distractions, and best use of available space
 includes good room arrangement (Evertson, 1989), where
 high traffic areas are free of congestion
 students are easily seen by the teacher
 frequently-used materials and supplies are readily accessible
 students can easily see instructional presentations and display
 may have to answer these important questions, among others, to ensure
good classroom management:
 How are the desks to be arranged? What seating arrangement should be followed?
 Where should the teacher’s desk be located?
 Where is the pencil sharpener and other equipment and how does the location
affect the students in class?
 Where should the reading group meet?
 Where can students work cooperatively?
 How should materials be distributed and collected?
 Should ventilation and light be adjusted?
 Classroom Management
3. Time Management
 refers to effective allocation of class time to minimize time spent on non-
instructional tasks, to keep pupils’ attention engaged when formal instruction
is being presented, or when they are working on assignments and other
learning activities, and, to reduce the total amount of time on non-productive
kind of activities (Savage & Armstrong, 1987)
 includes such aspects as:

◦ transitions – smooth and efficient movement from one aspect of lesson to

another so that “slack time” and classroom-control problems are reduced
◦ beginning-of-class-activities – include role-taking, materials development,
announcement-making, and other administrative and non-teaching
procedures done before instructional activities start
◦ pacing – the lesson the rate which the teacher helps the learners to move
through the lesson, which need to be break enough to provide a sense of
productive movement but not so quick that the students cannot cope
◦ providing assistance – involves developing procedures for responding to
pupils who need help but not to a point where other pupils become
frustrated and are tempted to misbehave too because the teacher’s attention
may have been concentrated on only one student
 Classroom Management
4. Instructional Management
 involves gaining and maintaining the cooperation of students in activities
that make full use of class time
 include the development of the following skills:

◦ movement management - maintaining the momentum and making

transitions between lesson topics smooth
◦ group focus – maintaining group alertness and concerted effort
◦ avoidance of satiation impediments – to maximize learning by providing
challenging and varying activities
 can be made effective by:
 giving clear instruction that specify exactly how they should change seats,

enter and leave the room, move through corridors to other designated
areas, change activity types
 agreeing on specific signals for students to know when formal instruction is

about to begin (e.g. teacher’s quiet gaze)

 assigning “teacher helpers” either to distribute materials or return/collect

papers or to help classmates needing assistance

 providing other stimulating activities for early finishers
 Classroom Management
5. Routines and Procedures
 have to be planned or made systematic for recurring and
predictable classroom events to be effectively managed
 classified into three types
◦ routines related to administrative matters, such as checking
of attendance, collecting and returning accomplished work
◦ routines related to pupils’ behavior, such as behaviors when
entering/leaving classroom, when using classroom
resources, etc.
◦ routines related to special information that students need
while learning tasks, such as directions in working with
others expectations regarding work outputs, etc.
 need to be reasonable: (i.e. normal, natural, not regimented,
and implemented sensibly)
 Classroom Management
6. Discipline
 has the primary goals of teaching students self-control and responsibility and the
methods used to respond to disciplinary problems; need to be evaluated in terms
of how well they respond to the goals
 can be effectively managed if teachers –

 regard discipline management as an integral part of their roles as teachers

 develop a plan of classroom control as much as they plan content lessons
 seek long - term solutions to misbehavior problems by attempting to address
their underlying causes (Brophy, 1983)
 follow this basic principles:
 Respect pupil dignity – comments and responses to misbehavior are directed
towards a specific behavior and never to the general character or worth of the
child
 Private correction is preferable to public correction – dealing with the
problems as quietly as possible
 Identity and address causes of misbehavior more than the misbehavior itself
 Distinguish between trivial and serious problems
 The responses to misbehavior must be consistent fair
 Students must be helped to recognize their behavior
Modes of Instructional Delivery
 Formal Education
◦ is highly institutionalized, established, and,
therefore, traditional mode of delivery, with
organized content, methods, and activities to
follow
◦ is hierarchically structured/chronologically
graded
◦ spans all educational levels: elementary through
college
◦ is carried out mostly in schools/educational
institutions on a face-to-face teacher-student
interaction
Modes of Instructional Delivery
 Non – Formal Education
◦ carried out outside the formal school
◦ is provided to particular types of learners who
may be out of school youth, illiterate,
underemployed, unemployed, school leavers, and
professional or technical workers needing
training in certain occupational skills
◦ includes organized educational activities or
programs such as functional education and
literacy, continuing education, and livelihood
skills training
Modes of Instructional Delivery
 Distance Study/Distance Education/Open Learning
◦ is basically the kind of study characterized by the “physical
separateness of learners and teachers” (Moore, 1975) for
much, most, or even all the time during the whole
teaching-learning process
◦ is often conducted through the use of print, mechanical or
electrical media/devices (TV, radio, audio/video, tapes,
computers, internet, etc.) outside the school premises
◦ includes such instructional materials as learning modules
instruction, learning package materials, and the like on line
instructional programmed based on a pre-produced course
that may be self-instructional or self-contained, with,
without, or with less teacher’s guidance