Genome-wide assessment of worldwide chicken SNP

genetic diversity indicates significant absence of rare

alleles in commercial breeds (2008 by The National Academy of Sciences of the
USA-www.pnas.orgcgidoi10.1073pnas.0806569105)

Breed utilization, genetic improvement, and industry consolidation are

predicted to have major impacts on the genetic composition of commercial
chickens. Consequently, the question arises as to whether sufficient genetic
diversity remains within industry stocks to address future needs. With the
chicken genome sequence and more than 2.8 million single-nucleotide
polymorphisms (SNPs), it is now possible to address biodiversity using a
previously unattainable metric: missing alleles. To achieve this assessment,
2551 informative SNPs were genotyped on 2580 individuals, including 1440
commercial birds. The proportion of alleles lacking in commercial populations
was assessed by (1) estimating the global SNP allele frequency distribution
from a hypothetical ancestral population as a reference, then determining the
portion of the distribution lost, and then (2) determining the relationship
between allele loss and the inbreeding coefficient. The results indicate that
50% or more of the genetic diversity in ancestral breeds is absent in
commercial pure lines. The missing genetic diversity resulted from the limited
number of incorporated breeds. As such, hypothetically combining stocks
within a company could recover only preexisting within-breed variability, but
not more rare ancestral alleles. We establish that SNP weights act as sentinels
of biodiversity and provide an objective assessment of the strains that are
most valuable for preserving genetic diversity. This is the first experimental
analysis investigating the extant genetic diversity of virtually an entire
agricultural commodity. The methods presented are the first to characterize
biodiversity in terms of allelic diversity and to objectively link rate of allele loss
with the inbreeding coefficient.
 DESORDENES METABOLICOS
Factores pre disponentes

• Son precipitados principalmente por: -

Alta Intensidad metabolica, y
- Alta Productividad:
Pollos machos de 3 kg de peso vivo a
los 42 dias de edad, Pavitos obtienen
1 kg de ganancia de peso vivo por
semana de edad, Ponedoras
comerciales son capaces de poner
mas de 330 huevos en 365 dias

• Otros factores: Medio ambiente,

ingredientes alimenticios, etc.
*
 DESORDENES METABOLICOS
Factores pre disponentes
• A causa del avance en la selección genética,
manejo y nutrición, los pollos y pavos
comerciales modernos de hoy día tienen una
tasa de rápido crecimiento, y alta eficiencia en
conversión alimenticia y tasa metabólica.
• Estas características promueven un
INCREMENTO DE LA INTENSIDAD DEL
SISTEMA CARDIOVASCULAR (Porqué?)
PREDISPONIENDO A LAS AVES A
DESORDENES METABÓLICOS tal como
fallas ventriculares, síndrome ascítico,
arritmias cardiacas, desordenes
cardiopulmonares y muerte súbita.
 These make up the largest group of poultry
diseases classified as metabolic disorders and
cause more economic loss than infectious
agents.
 Poultry metabolic diseases occur primarily in
two body systems:
(1) CARDIOVASCULAR AILMENTS, which in
broiler chickens and turkeys are responsible for
a major portion of the flock mortality;
(2) MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS, which
account for less mortality, but in broilers and
turkeys slow down growth (thereby reducing
profit), and cause lameness, which remains a
major welfare concern.
In addition, conditions such as osteoporosis and
hypocalcaemia in table-egg chickens reduce
egg production and can kill.
SISTEMAS DE CRIANZA - O2

Ph.D. Elias Salvador T. FMVZ-UNICA

 Metabolic Challenges: Past, Present, and Future - S. Leeson
Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph,
Ontario, Canada N1H 2W1 - 2007 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 16:121–125
 DESORDENES METABOLICOS
Síndrome de muerte súbita
Afecta pollos de engorde de rápido Causas y factores relacionados:
crecimiento. • En la actualidad, la avicultura comercial tiene un carácter
intensivo, empleando animales de gran potencial genético y
Más en machos. elevadas exigencias en instalaciones, alimentación, sanidad y
21 A 28 días de edad manejo.
• La fragilidad metabólica y mayor propensión al estrés del pollo
Sin signos clínicos
parrillero afectan la salud productiva
Pocos cambios patológicos.
• Anticoccidiales ionóforos
• Dietas con carbohidratos como fuente de energía. Tratamiento y prevención:
• Alta densidad de la dieta • No hay tratamiento único.
• Bajos niveles de calcio • Reducir consumo carbohidratos
• Lactato deshidrogenasa. • Restricción alimento.
• Niveles de biotina, piridoxina y tiamina bajos y otras • Programas de luz.
vitaminas en niveles altos
• Biotina. • Evitar el uso de ionóforos.
• Taurina • Niveles adecuados de vitaminas
• Tipo de grasa • Evitar disturbios.
• Textura de la dieta.
• Programa de luz.
 DESORDENES METABOLICOS
Síndrome de hígado graso
• What causes fatty liver syndrome?
• The principal cause is thought to be an
excessive calorie intake, but it may also be
related to exposure to the mycotoxin
aflatoxin, calcium deficiency and stress.
Causa de hipoglucemia, incapacidad de llevar a cabo la
gluconeogénesis como consecuencia de una baja actividad
de la piruvato descarboxilasa
PIRUVATO
CARBOXILASA

• An incorrect protein: energy balance may

be to blame. Some strains of laying hen
appear to be more susceptible.
• Birds within a flock that are most affected
tend to be the higher producing hens. Fatty
liver syndrome has been seen in
conjunction with cage layer fatigue.

Tratamiento: Suplementación con biotina

Dieta con alto contenido proteico o lipídico
 EXCESO CARBOHIDRATOS-
DESBALANCE AAS – INDICADORES FIS.

Ph.D. Elias Salvador T. FMVZ-UNICA

 SOPORTE A FUNCION HEPATICA
El estrés del manejo intensivo y la velocidad de crecimiento,
provocan una sobrecarga metabólica y el hígado adquiere un
rol de gran importancia, debido a la multiplicidad de
funciones (producción y secreción de bilis, almacenamiento
de vitaminas y oligoelementos, síntesis de proteínas,
reserva de glucógeno, detoxificación de sustancias nocivas).
La capacidad funcional del hígado es susceptible a elevadas
exigencias de producción.
A pesar de la importancia que puede llegar a tener el empleo
de sustancias que modifiquen el metabolismo hepático, su
uso en avicultura esta limitado solo a algunos factores
lipotrópicos.
El suministro continuo de dichos factores junto con otras
sustancias que favorecen la función hepática (colagogos,
coleréticos) no es en la actualidad una práctica corriente, de
manera que los potenciales efectos benéficos sobre la
producción y las modificaciones metabólicas producidas
restan aún por investigar.

Ph.D. Elias Salvador T. FMVZ-UNICA

 DESORDENES METABOLICOS
Síndrome de hígado graso hemorrágico
• Excesiva acumulación de grasa en el hígado asociado con
varios grados de hemorragia.
• Afecta gallinas ponedoras, reproductoras pesadas y
reproductoras de pavos.
• Animales en jaula y alimentadas con dietas con alto
contenido de energía.
• Hígado agrandado y friable, crestas pálidas.
• Ovoposición , factor que induce hemorragia y muerte
• Balance positivo de energía
• Altas productoras.

Causas: Prevención y tratamiento :

 Balance de energía
 Peso de ave
 Temperatura ambiental
 Bajos niveles de proteína
 Colina y vitamina B12.
 Evitar estrés (calórico).
 El balance proteína- energía.
 Uso de productos granos de destilería y harina de pescado.
 Uso de grasa en lugar de carbohidratos como fuente de energía para
reducir el metabolismo hepático.
 niveles de vitaminas hidrosolubles y liposolubles (BIOTINA 0.2 mg/Kg
alimento)
 Nutricion de reproductoras
 DESORDENES METABOLICOS
Desordenes esqueléticos
Problemas podales

artritis osteopatías

osteítis osteodistrofias osteodisplasias

condrodistrofia discondroplasia

raquitismo Varus y valgus

osteomalacia espondilolistesis

Necrosis cabeza del fémur

 CONDRODISTROFIA (PEROSIS)

• Deficiencia de colina y
manganeso.

• Desorden de la placa de
crecimiento de los huesos
largos.

• Perosis, dislocación del tendón.

• Varus y valgus

DESORDEN ó DEFICIENCIA?
 OSTEOPOROSIS
Osteoporosis in laying hens is defined as a decrease in the amount of fully
mineralized structural bone, leading to increased fragility and susceptibility
to fracture.
It contrasts with another cause of bone mineral loss, osteomalacia, in which
defective mineralization of bone tissue occurs, with thick seams of poorly
mineralized organic matrix.
Both conditions will lead to poor quality bone, but osteomalacia is primarily
associated with nutritional deficiencies of calcium, phosphorus, or
vitamin D, whereas osteoporosis is an altogether more complex
problem.
Osteoporosis, cage layer fatigue and poor shell quality have a common
cause, i.e. insufficient available calcium for the support of bone
metabolism or egg shell deposition.

Osteoporosis in laying hens is a condition that involves the progressive loss of

structural bone during the laying period. This bone loss results in increased
bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture, with fracture incidences of up to
30% over the laying period and depopulation not uncommon under commercial
conditions.
 DISCONDROPLASIA TIBIAL
(OSTEOCONDROSIS)

• La discondroplasia tibial (TD) forma parte de un conjunto de alteraciones esqueléticas de las

aves de corral producidas en forma intensiva, que entrañan disminución de la performance
del lote, del rendimiento individual y del bienestar animal. Es un desorden del desarrollo,
caracterizado por la permanencia de cartílago anormal en el extremo proximal de la tibia.
• Si bien las lesiones moderadas no impiden que los pollos lleguen al alimento y al agua; el
dolor, asociado a las lesiones severas, puede motivarlos a echarse y por consiguiente a
disminuir el consumo.
• Un estudio secuencial llevado a cabo en dos líneas comerciales de distinta predisposición a
desarrollar TD sugirió que, en el caso en estudio, la TD estaba relacionada a una
predisposición al raquitismo y asociada a bajos niveles del metabolito activo de la vitamina D3
(el 1,25(OH)2vitamina D3) en la circulación sanguínea, en el período de mayor crecimiento de
la tibia.
• En un sentido amplio este desorden del desarrollo está determinado genéticamente e
influido por el manejo a través de factores tales como: nivel de actividad, composición de la
dieta y método de alimentación.
• La TD es un desorden del desarrollo,
caracterizado por la permanencia de
cartílago anormal en el extremo proximal
de la tibia. La mayor frecuencia de esta
afección en el tibiotarso se ha
relacionado con la elevada actividad
metabólica que este hueso presenta
hacia la tercer semana de edad, producto
de su rápido crecimiento.
• Ocurre en pollos, pavos y patos como
resultado de una falla en la maduración
de los condrocitos que están proliferando
en el disco de crecimiento. Esta falla
impide la penetración vascular y, por lo
tanto, la normal producción de hueso
(Sanotra et al., 2001).
• Cuando se practican cortes sagitales o
coronales del extremo proximal de la tibia,
se observa una placa de cartílago que
ensancha la metáfisis (Figura 1). Figura 1. Tibias de Pollos. Cortes Sagitales de
los Extremos Proximales. Izquierda:
discondroplasia grado 3; Derecha: cartílago
epifisiario normal
 PICAJE - CANIBALISMO

• What causes cannibalism?

• Cannibalism often starts as feather pulling or picking
while the birds are only a few weeks old or as
investigative pecking at any age. These behaviours can
escalate to aggressive pecking, particularly if injury
occurs. Scientific study has shown that any or a
combination of stressors can also serve as triggers
leading to serious aggressive pecking and cannibalism.
• These stressors include crowding, bright light
intensity, high room temperature, poor ventilation,
high humidity, low salt, trace nutrient deficiency,
insufficient feeding or drinking space, nervous and
excitable birds (hereditary), external parasites, access
to sick or injured birds, stress from moving, boredom
and idleness, housing birds of different appearance
together and birds prolapsing during egg-laying.
 Prevention and treatment of cannibalism :

• Good husbandry practices should aim to minimise the stressors listed above as potential causes
for cannibalism.
• Some strains of birds have been shown to have a higher tendency towards developing aggressive
pecking behaviour and so strains that are more placid should be preferred.
• Bright light is a known factor leading to cannibalism but control of lighting levels in some poultry
housing systems can be very difficult if not impossible, such as in free range systems. Where
outbreaks of cannibalism have occurred in a flock, or where there is a reasonable concern that
management strategies can not be guaranteed to prevent an outbreak, then beak trimming of the
birds may be used as a control measure. Trimming of the sharp tip of the upper, and sometimes
also lower, beak reduces the damage that is caused by aggressive pecking.
• The spread of the behaviour may be able to be controlled if the injured and the aggressive birds can
be rapidly identified and removed from the flock. Provision of escape areas may also help in floor-
housed flocks. Other control methods that have been tested include the use of spectacles to
prevent forward vision, bits that prevent complete closure of the beak and coloured contact lenses
to prevent the identification of blood on another bird.
• There is evidence that cannibalism may be alleviated through the use of high fibre diets. It is
believed that high fibre diets enhance gut development and gizzard function, which in turn help
reduce aggressive behaviour in hens
DESORDENES METABOLICOS
ASCITIS
 DESORDENES METABOLICOS
ASCITIS
 The ascites syndrome, a metabolic disorder that
accounts for OVER 25% OF OVERALL
MORTALITY, has become the most noticeable,
non-infectious cause of loss in the broiler industry
worldwide[1].
 There are many factors that cause ascites, for
example, high altitude, rapid growth rate, limiting
lung volume, the provision of high energy rations
and pelleted diets, cold, poor ventilation, the
presence of respiratory disease, high sodium and
low dietary phosphorus levels, hepatotoxins,
mycotoxins and furazolidone in the feed, vitamin E
and
 Se deficiencies and stress. Among so many
causes, which one is the main trigger is still
questionable. It was reported that low temperature
was an easy and economical method to trigger
ascites. One report has indicated that high nutrient
metabolic rate could cause ascites, however high
levels of the hormones (T3 and T4) in the plasma
are related to nutrient metabolism.
 Ascites is a complex problem caused by many
interacting factors such as genetics, environment and
management. Many nutritional, medicinal and
management strategies have been proposed to
alleviate the problem. HIGHER LEVELS OF
DIETARY VITAMIN C and E ALONG WITH
SELENIUM YEAST MIGHT BE BENEFICIAL,
presumably because of their role in improving cellular
integrity. Oils rich in n-3 fatty acids have been shown
to reduce pulmonary hypertension and,
consequently, ascites incidence. The potential use of
flax oil has already been demonstrated, whereas the
effects of other oils rich in n-3 fatty acids (fish,
linseed and canola oils) remain to be investigated.
 The assessment of the effects of dietary electrolyte
balance on ascites incidence seems to be a
promising field of research in broiler nutrition. In
general, reducing the dietary level of salt (NaCl) and
adding bicarbonates to the diet and drinking water
have been proposed as potential .cost-effective.
methods to reduce ascites incidence.
 EROSION DE MOLLEJA

• Mycotoxinas.
• Cobre.
• Aminas biogenicas.
• Harina pescado (Gizzerosine)
• Torta de Soya de mala calidad?
• Adenovirus.
• Otrors factores:
Otor factores capaces de producir erosion de
molleja, pero no frecuentemente en
condiciones comerciales , se incluye la
inanicion alimenticia y deficiencia de
AA’s azufrados