HUMAN BODY PHYSIOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY

Prof. Liu Yue-chun

Office:21303 room
Tel:2602310 (office)
2602197 (home)
Chapter I: Introduction
Section 1. Some concepts of physiology
What is physiology?
Physiology is a branch of biology.
It is the science about the mechanism of life.
It includes all life forms ,from grass to tree,
from bacteria to human body. In this point,
the knowledge content of physiology is
much larger than other branches of
medicine.
Physiology can be divided into many
subdivisions:
cell physiology is about to cell function.
because all organisms except virus is
composed of cells so that it is also called
general physiology.

animal physiology is about animal life.

(veterinary medicine)
plant physiology is about plant activity.
medical physiology is about function of
human body so that it is called human body
physiology also.
Why must you study physiology?
Human body physiology is a necessary
lesson for medicine.
If you want to be a doctor, you must
study the human body physiology first
because you must know the activity
mechanism and various parameters of
normal human body before you can
diagnose a disease.
Physiology= normal .(structure and
function). Abnormal =pathology.
 By learning human body physiology,
you shall know how human body is
organized and how performs its
functions.
For example, why does your heart
beat automatically, from fetus to life
end. Where does go the food we eaten.
We can get answer for these
questions by learning human body
physiology.
 After you have studied human body
physiology, you may be a preliminary doctor
(half a doctor) because you can distinguish
normal from abnormal human body.
After you have studied human body
physiology, as a preliminary doctor, you can
write two prescriptions. If he is physiologic,
write: go home, hard work. If he is not
physiologic, write: go home, take money,
carry out further examination.
What is life?
Life is a special movement pattern of
the matter in the universe.
I think, more corrective, it is special
process of matter movement.

This is a philosophic question and

very difficult to answer. How can we
know which is a life body or non-life
body?
The three features are used to
distinguish life from non-life body.
A life body must have following all
three specificities:
1. excitability = life or alive
concept:
The ability of life beings (alive cell,
organ, tissue or body) to produce
reaction actively to the stimulus.
Stimulus - change of life environment
Concept: The changes of internal or
external environment surrounding life
beings.

for instance, change of room

temperature , external environment
change.

Change of blood pH , blood osmosis ,

internal environment change.
Reaction –change of life activity
Concept: The changes in the function of
life body induced by stimulus is called
reaction.
For instance, if the room temperature
changes from 20o C to 45o C,
(stimulus), we begin sweating,
( reaction) because we all are alive,
have life, and possess the excitability.
Excitability is also called adaptability
The excitability is a indication of
life. No excitability, no life or
dead.

Two types of reactions:

(1) inhibition: body’s activities
become depressed,
(2) excitation: activities become
more obvious,
In excitable cells (nerve, muscle,
gland), excitation means a action
Threshold intensity
Concept: The minimal strength of
stimulation to induce reaction . It is
inverse ratio to the excitability, i,e, the
higher the excitability, the smaller the
threshold.

For example, two cells, one is excited

by 1 voltage stimulation, another is
excited by 2 voltages stimulation, the
former’ s excitability is higher.
2. Metabolism=living
Concept: biologic body can continuously
re-establish own structure by gaining
substance from external environment
and simultaneously break down its
tissue to obtain energy for the activity of
life, i.e. continuous exchange with
external environment.
Living = (eating + drinking)- (defecation
+micturating)= from dining hall to toilet.
Metabolism is a process to renew life.
It includes two processes, anabolism
and catabolism.
To gain substances from external
environment to re-establish body tissue
is called anabolism.

Decomposition of the body tissue to

produce energy and lose something is
called catabolism.
 Under general conditions, both
processes are carried out
simultaneously in biologic body, that
means both processes are balanced.
but in some time, both processes may
be imbalanced, i.e. one process may be
dominant.
For examples, in a period, you eat more
food, eat after sleeping, sleep after
eating, you may be changed very fatty
and body weight is increased. In this
period, your body metabolism is
anabolism as dominant process.

Otherwise, no food to eat, you work hard

everyday, sometimes after, you are thin
and thin, last died. The catabolism is
dominant process in this period.
3. Reproduction=love
Concept:
The all life body have the ability to
reproduce (duplicate) filial generation.
For instance, a woman can birth a
daughter or a son. A life body must have
the ability to reproduce, otherwise it will
become extinct in the nature, i.e. this life
form activity is end.
The function of reproduction is a
process to transfer life to next
generation and continue the life.
life cycle:
Life (birth) living love
(death) new life

More obvious in some insects, a butterfly

crawls out pupa, then love, then died at once.
 Section 2.
the internal environment
and the functional control of the
human body
 The internal environment
concept:
Extracellular fluid is the direct living
environment of cells so it is called internal
environment.
In a multicellular organism like human body,
all the alive cells are immersed in extracellular
fluid. All nutrients needed by cells are gained
from the extracellular fluid. All the metabolic
waste produced by cells are released into this
fluid.
No water, no life in the earth, about 60% of
adult human body weight is water.
Two thirds of the body water is inside cell,
intracellular fluid, one third outside cell,
extracellular fluid.

80% of extracellular fluid exists in

interstitial space (interstitial fluid).
20% of that in circulation system (blood
plasma).
All body cell is surrounded by extracellular
fluid, only in this environment can cells
perform their functions.
The atmosphere is external environment.
Body water and Internal Environment

Extracellular fluid=20%BW
Blood Plasma 1/5

1/3 Interstitial fluid 4/5

Intracellular fluid
2/3
= 40 % BW
Homeostasis
concept: the parameters of internal
environment (extracellular fluid) are relative
stable.
This relative stability doesn’t mean no any
changes in these parameters, but means the
changes being relative small (change within a
small range).
For instance, pH of extracellular fluid can be
changed between 7.35~7.45,
The body temperature can be changed 1o C in
Blood pH 7.35-7.45
Bicarbonate 24-28 mEq/L
O2 content 17.2-22.0 ml/100 ml
Total lipid 400-800 mg/100 ml
Glucose 75-110 mg/100 ml
Osmosis 280-320 mOsm/L
Temperature 36o - 37o C
The maintenance of homeostasis
The maintenance of constant condition in
extracellular fluid is achieved by activity of
different system of body. For example:
Circulatory system: transport nutrients to
tissue and carry away metabolic end
products. Transportation.
Gastrointestinal tract: supply nutrients.
Coal supplement
Respiratory system: intake O2 and remove
CO2 . Ventilation machine
Kidney: remove most of end products from
plasma. excretive tunnel
 The integration between different systems
of the body

Life is a fire,
human body is
a stove
The regulation of body function
The body functions are regulated by
following three ways:
Nervous regulation
Humoral regulation
Autoreglation
1. Neuroregulation
nervous system is main regulation system of
body function. If the spinal cord is injured,
body can not move at once, he may be
paralyzed forever. The nervous system
regulates the body function by reflex.
Reflex: with the participation of nervous
center, body reacts regularly to stimulus.
The basis of reflex is reflex arc, it includes 5
parts: receptor afferent nerve nerve
center efferent nerve effector. The
features of nervous regulation are fast,
precise. For instance, a flexor reflex.
2.Humoral regulation
many organs can secrete and release some
signal substance, these substances are
called hormone and transported by body
fluid to regulate organ ‘s function, this
way is called humoral regulation.
this control method of body function is also
called hormone regulation.
Hormone:
Biological signal substance
released by endocrine cells.

The feature of hormonal regulation

is slow and extensive range.

For instance, insulin controls

glucose metabolism, thyroid
hormones control body temperature
and energy metabolism.
3. Autoregulation
some organs of the body have the ability to
change their activity by themselves, this control
method is called autoregulation. So called is
that these changes are non-nervous system and
non-hormone dependent.
For instance, a isolated heart can change its
contraction force in perfusion condition, a
segment of intestinal tract can contract and
dilate in organ perfusion condition.
The mechanism of functional control
feedback control
most control methods of body function
are performed by feedback mechanism.
Feedback control
 1. Negative feedback
most control methods of body
function are performed by negative
feedback.

Concept:
The action of feedback signal are
antagonistic to the control signal from
the center. negative feedback is main
regulation method of body function.
For instance, the regulation of blood pressure is
a negative feedback regulation. When arterial
blood pressure changes to high level suddenly,
the higher pressure stimulates the receptor in
the arteries, the feedback signals from arterial
receptor arrive to cardiovascular center,
decrease the activity of the center, control
center decrease its impulse discharge, heart
beat changes slower, blood pressure changes to
lower.
2. Positive feedback
Concept:
the action of feedback signal is to
increase the activity of control center,
i.e, the action of feedback signal is
same to the initiating stimulus.
 some body functions are
regulated by positive feedback
regulation although this method is
much less than negative feedback
in our body. Positive feedback is
vicious circle and cause a process
to end.
For instance, micturition, when micturition
center is excited, it discharges impulse to
induce urinary bladder to contract, urine
flowing through urethra, stimulating receptor in
urethra, these receptors produce signals and
send to micturition center. Feedback signals
then increase the activity of micturition center,
micturition center discharges more impulses to
increase the contraction of bladder until urine is
over. The process is end.
 Chapter II. Cell physiology
Section 1. cell membrane:
its structure and function
Human body is consisted of 100 trillion cells and
all body functions are performed by different
living cells in body. In this chapter, we shall
mainly introduce membrane’s structure and
function, the structure and function of the other
organelles will be only reviewed simply.
 1.) Membrane structure
cell membrane
Membrane structure: unit membrane
Fluid mosaic model:
Concept: Within fluid two lipid layer,
some globular protein molecules are
inlayed in lipid layer. Its thick is about
7.5 to 10 nanometers.

Proteins are floating on lipid layer like

icebergs in ocean. Proteins can move
in lipid bilayer.
Unit membrane
The cell membrane and most organelles of the
cell are covered by thin membranes. These
membranes include the cell membrane, nuclear
membrane, membrane of endoplasmic reticulum,
and membranes of mitochondria, lysosome, and
Golgi apparatus. All the membranes are same in
basic structure so that this basic membrane
structure is called unit membrane. The unit
membrane is a basic constructive model in cell.
All membranes are same in the
compositions, but there is some
small differences among various
membranes, for example, more
proteins are in the membrane of
mitochondria.
Composition of cell membrane is as
following:
protein 55%;
phospholipids 25%;
cholesterol 13%;
other lipids 4%;
carbohydrates 3%.
Although 55% of weight are proteins, their
molecules are much less than that of lipids
because protein molecule weight is larger.
Lipid bilayer
most of lipids are phospholipids. This
molecule has one end soluble in water and
other end soluble only in fats so that when
they are enveloped by water, they
automatically form bilayers molecule. Lipid
bilayers is as basic barrier of cell.
Proteins
proteins are floating in lipid bilayers. Most
are receptors and ion channels.
Carbohydrates
some polysaccharides are
connecting to protein or lipids.
General condition, some of them
function as antigen, for instance,
different blood groups is determined
by polysaccharides of membrane.
Lipids spontaneously form structures

A lipid bilayer is a stable, low energy structure

Self sealing structure/eliminate free edge

What drives this structured association?

Exclusion of Lipids from Water… not lipid association
 Lipids are amphipathic
Polar
r

micturition
la
po
n
No
The features of lipid bilayer
1. Liquid phase (flow, fuse, break, seal )
Because phospholipid melting point is
lower, it exists in liquid phase in body
temperature.
2. Movement The lipid molecule can move
in same layer lipid in lateral and rotation
movement but it cannot do vertical and
inverse movement.
3. Reduced flowing by protein and
cholesterol Some cholesterol molecules
are dissolved in the bilayer of
membrane. The more cholesterol
molecules mix, the less the fluidity of the
membrane.
In the original ocean, there are many lipid
molecules, they are mixed and stirred by
the tides, forming a bilayer of lipid
molecules automatically, enclosing some
water in a vesicle. This a primary cell in
the nature. The first cell in the nature.
Which is earlier to appeared in the nature,
a chicken or a egg? It may be a egg.
•Endocytosis
–Material enters the cell through the plasma membrane
within vesicles.
What factors determines the shape of tissue
and organ?
1. Water acts as a cohesive force for cells. It is
also a basic separator for cells.
2. the other intercellular adhesive structure:
tight junction; adheres junction; desmosome;
gap junction; intermediate filament;
hemodesomsome.
3. basal lamina, extracellular matrix; connective
fibers; (elastic, collagenous fiber). Capsule of
organ.
 General Subdivisions of a Cell
A. Nucleus
(regulatory B. Plasma
center of the Membrane
cell) (selectively
permeable
boundary
C. Cytoplasm between the
(everything cell and the
between the environment
)
plasma
membrane and
the nuclear Organelles are individual
compartments in the cytoplasm
compartment)
Endoplasmic reticulum---synthesis
A network of tubular and flat vesicular structure. All
tubules and vesicles interconnect with each other and the
space between two membrane connect with space
between the two membrane surface of the nuclear
membrane. The walls of tubules and vesicles are unit
membrane just similar to cell membrane but has some
difference in composition. There are two classes of
endoplasmic reticulum, granular (rough) and agranular
(smooth) endoplasmic reticulum.
Main function of endoplasmic reticulum is to synthesize
some substance, for example, proteins, lipids, etc.
Golgi apparatus----process and pack
It is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum and
composed of four or more stacked layers of thin, flat
enclosed vesicles lying near one side of the nucleus.
Golgi apparatus is prominent in secretory cells.
The function of Golgi apparatus is related to
endoplasmic reticulum. Some substances
synthsized in ER are transported to Golgi apparatus
to process further to form secretory vesicles or
lysosomes or other cytoplasmic components.
 Lysosome----digest and protect
Lysosome are formed by breaking off from the
Golgi apparatus. It is a unit membrane bag and is
filled with large numbers of small granules 5-8
nanometers in diameter. These granules contain
as many as 40 hydrolase enzymes.
The lysosomes provide an intracellular digestion
and protection system for
1 . Damaged cellular structures
2. Food particles ingested by cell
3. Unwanted matter such as bacteria
Peroxisome-----oxidation
Peroxisomes are similar physically to lysosomes,
but they are different in two important ways:
First, they are believed to be formed by self-
replication (perhaps by budding off from the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum) rather than by
the Golgi apparatus. Second, they contain
oxidase rather than hydrolase. Several of the
oxidase are capable of combining oxygen with
hydrogen ions from different intracellular
chemicals to form hydrogen peroxide(H2O2). H2O2
in turn oxidize some substances, for instance,
alcohol or other poisons.
Mitochondria-----produce ATP
Mitochondria are called the powerhouse of the cell
because they produce ATP as energy of the cell.
The basic structure of mitochondria is composed
mainly of two unit membranes: one outer and one
inner membrane. Many infoldings of the inner
membrane form shelves onto which oxidative
enzymes are attached. The inner cavity of the
mitochondria is filled with a matrix that contains
large quantities of dissolved enzymes that are
necessary for extracting energy from nutrients for
production of ATP.
Mitochondria are self-replication, which
means one mitochondrion can reproduce
two or more mitochondria. They have this
ability is that they have own special DNA.
Mitochondria are present in cytoplasm of
all cells but the number in different cell
changing from a hundred to several
thousands dependent on the amount of
energy required by the cell. The more
energy need, the more mitochondria in.
Filament and tubular structrues----skeleton
Some proteins of cells are organized into
filaments or tubules. they are called
microfilament or microtubules. In muscle
cells, these proteins can form contraction
structures. In most conditions,
microfilament and microtubule provide a
cytoskeleton system for cells to maintain
the shape and the movement.
Nucleus----control center
The nucleus is the control center of the cell and contain
genetic substance, genes or DAN. The genes determine all
the characteristics and function of the cells.

Nuclear membrane:Nucleus is enveloped by two

separated bilayer membranes, outer and inner membrane.
The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic
reticulum of the cytoplasm so that the space between the
two nuclear membrane is also continuous with the space
inside the endoplasmic reticulum. There are some pores
in the two membranes of the nucleus, called nuclear
pores. The diameter of the pore is about 9 nanometers
and can allow molecules lower than 44000 molecular
weight to pass through, for instance, mRNA.
Nucleoli and the formation of ribosomes
the nucleus of most cells contain one or more
differently staining structures called nucleoli. The
nucleolus, unlike most other organelles that we have
discussed, does not have a limiting membrane. It is
simply an accumulation of large amounts of RAN and
proteins of the types found in ribosomes. The formation
of nucleoli (and also of the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
out the nucleus) begins in the nucleus. First, specific
DAN genes in the chromosomes cause RNA to be
synthesized. Some of this is stored in the nucleoli, but
most of it is transported outward through the nuclear
pores into cytoplasm. Here, it is used in conjunction
with specific proteins to assemble “mature” ribosomes
that play an essential role in forming cytoplasm
2) Membrane function
 Act as a barrier AND…
 Receive information
 transport molecules (only this is discussed)
 Move/expand
 Transport of substances through the
cell membrane
main components of body fluids
outer cell inner cell

Na+ 142 mm 10 mm
K+ 4 mm 140mm
Ca2+ 1.2 mm 0.05 um
Mg2+ 0.6 mm 29 mm
Cl- 103 mm 4 mm
HCO- 28 mm 10 mm
Glucose 90 mg/dl 0-20
mg/dl
Po 35 mmHg 20
The cell membrane provides a barrier for the cell
and divided the extracellular and intracellular
fluid. The cells are basic function unit of life
body and the most of life activities are happened
within cells. All the nutrients needed for life
activity are derived from the extracellular fluid
and all the end products of metabolism must be
excreted to the outer of the cells, so that the
components within the cells must be exchanged
continuously with the outside.
Because the cell membrane is a lipid
bilayer. The molecule weight of
substances needed by the cells is
different, the patterns of transport
passing through the cell membrane
is also different.
General speaking, lipid-soluble
substances are easier than water-soluble,
the smaller the molecule weight, the
easier molecule to pass through the cell
membrane. There are 4 ways of transport
through the cell membrane:
1.Simple diffusion
2.facilitated diffusion
3.active transport
4.endocytosis and exocytosis
1.Simple diffusion
concept: Substances freely go through
membrane along the direction of concentration
gradient from the high side to low side.
It is a simple physical and chemical movement of
molecules.
No (ATP) is used, the force pushing molecule
movement is concentration gradient.. Just as the
water flows from high place to low place.
Energy is the gravity. The difference of height of
water position. Dwonhill.
all molecules and ions in the body fluid,
including water and dissolved substances
are in constant motion. This motion of
molecules is what physicists call “heat”,
the higher the temperature, the greater the
motion. In a determined space, molecules
always move from lower concentration
place to higher place until the concentration
in any place is equal.
For instance, we drop a little ink to a basin of
water, ink will spread to whole basin until the
color of the water is same. The movement of
molecules is called diffusion and is caused by
the molecule heat movement. The direction of
diffusion is determined by the difference of
concentration of molecules, the concentration
gradient. It is always from high to low
concentration place.
A mixture of several substances, the
direction of diffusion of one substance is
determined by its own concentration
gradient. Because cell membrane is lipid
bilayer barrier, only small, lipid-soluble
molecules can diffuse through the
membrane.
 Rate of Diffusion

• Speed at which diffusion occurs.

– Dependent upon:
• The magnitude of concentration gradient.
– Driving force of diffusion.
• Permeability of the membrane.
– more permeable, faster diffusion.
• Temperature.
– Higher temperature, faster diffusion rate.
• Surface area of the membrane.
– Microvilli increase surface area.
.
2. Facilitated diffusion (helped diffusion)
Concept:
Substances diffuse from high side to the low side with a
special protein’s improvement.
Facilitated diffusion is so called that a substance
transported in this manner diffuses through the
membrane with a specific protein to help to do so.
These proteins may be a carrier or a channel. General
speaking, two facilitated diffusions are existed, carrier
diffusion and channel diffusion. That is, the carriers or
channels facilitate the substance to diffuse.
 1. Facilitated Diffusion via carrier

Concept: Diffusion carried

out by carrier protein in
membrane

Substance: glucose, amino

acid

Mechanism: a “ferry” or
“shuttle” process
 Facilitated Diffusion via Carrier
Characteristics of carrier mediated diffusion:
1. Down concentration Gradient
2. Specificity:
Carrier interact with specific molecule only.
3. Competition:
Molecules with similar chemical structures
compete for carrier site.
4. Saturation:
Vmax (transport maximum):
– Carrier sites have become saturated.
2) Facilitated diffusion by channels
Factors that affect net rate of diffusion by channels
1. The concentration difference between the both sides of membrane---
the concentration gradient. the larger the concentration of
gradient between both sides of membrane, the more substances
diffuse through the facilitated diffusion.

2. Membrane potential---the potential gradient. the potential gradient

cross the membrane can affect the e facilitated diffusion of some
substance if they are electrical charged ions. If the membrane
potential is negative in the inner side of cell, a negative charged ion is
more difficult to diffuses through the membrane from the outer to the
inner of cell, otherwise, a positive charged ion is easier to diffuses
from the outer to the inner side.

3. The amount of channels in the cell membrane.

3.Active transport
Concept
Some substances are transported against
the concentration gradient with
expenditure of ATP. uphill
For instance, the concentration of sodium within
cell is lower but Na+ must be transported from the
inner to the outer of the cells. K+ concentration is
lower in the outer of the cells but K+ can be
transported from the outer to the inner of the
cells, this transport method is called active
transport because the energy exhausted in the
active transport is supplied by ATP of the cell. The
cell membrane can transport some substances
actively because some proteins in the cell
membrane work like a pump.
Generally, these proteins are enzymes
and can catalyze the ATP as the energy
for transport. For instance, K+ and Na+
can be transported against concentration
gradient is carried out by a enzyme
called Na+―K+ dependent ATPase, or
sodium pump.
Primary active transport
The cell transports substances against concentration
gradient by using ATP to supply energy. For instance,
sodium pump.
Na+/K+ Pump
 Secondary Active Transport
Coupled transport. Glucose + Na+
• Energy needed for glucose “uphill” movement is obtained from
“downhill” transport of Na+.
• Hydrolysis of ATP by Na+/K+ pump is used to maintain [Na+] gradient.
4.Endocytosis and exocytosis
Some large molecules, for instance, protein
molecule, and some large particles like
bacteria, can not pass membrane through
ways illustrated above.
Cells transport these substance through
endocytosis or exocytosis. The endocytosis
and exocytosis are carried out by the
deformation movement of the cell membrane.
Endocytosis and exocytosis are active
transport method and need ATP as the energy.
1)endocytosis:
Pinocytosis: some fluid substance
enters cell by the deformation of
cell membrane.
Phagocytosis: some large particles
enter cells.
•Endocytosis
–Material enters the cell through the plasma membrane
within vesicles.
 Exocytosis
 Vesicle containing the secretory protein fuses with
plasma membrane, to remove contents from cell.