Academic English

An academic text is constituted by paragraphs. Further, a

paragraph consists of three elements, namely

1. a topic sentence,
2. supporting sentences, and
3. a concluding sentence.

The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph, which
divides into two main parts: topic and controlling idea. The topic
sentence can be in the beginning, end, middle and both beginning
and end of the paragraph.

Supporting sentences elaborate the topic sentence. This is done by

specifying it with reference to examples, illustrations, statistics and
quotation.

Concluding sentence infers or deduces an idea of the whole

paragraph by paraphrase, summary and implication.
 Topic Sentence at the Beginning (Deductive)

Gold, a precious stone, is prized for two important

characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous (shining)
beauty that is resistant to corrosion (chemical damage).
Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins and ornamental
purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will
remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian
coin remains as untarnished (unchanged in color) today
as the day it was minted twenty centuries ago. Another
important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to
industry and science. For many years, it has been used in
hundreds of industrial applications. For instance, the
most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts
wear gold-plated heat shields for protections outside the
spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its
beauty, but also for its utility.
 Deductive Paragraph
Gold, a precious stone, is prized for two important characteristics.

TOPIC CONTROLING IDEAS

It is advised that the topic sentence

TS be written not too general nor specific

SS SS SS

CS
 Inductive Paragraph

SS SS SS SS

CS/TS
 Mixture

SS SS SS

CS/TS

SS SS SS

CS
Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power.
These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter and their
winds can reach velocities (speed) of seventy-five miles per hour or
more. Furthermore, the strong winds and heavy rainfall that
accompany them can completely destroy a small town in a couple of
hours. In addition, the energy that is released by hurricane in one
day exceeds the total energy consumed by humankind throughout
the world in one year. Thus, cyclone releases a vast energy which
may even blow a house into small pieces in seconds.

Synonyms, words that have the same meaning, do not always have
the same emotional meaning. For example, the words stingy and
frugal both mean careful with money. However, to call a person
stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive
connotation. Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny,
and aggressive but not pushy. Further, you may positively envy your
friend’s success and others tend to be jealous of your success.
Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many
so-called synonyms are not really synonymous at all.
Pollution in developing countries is a consequence of economic pursuit, people’s
ignorance of environment and poor law enforcement. Firstly, developing countries
are faced to the problem of insufficient food due to the rapid growth of
population. To overcome the problem thousands hectares of forest or jungle are
cleared and trees felled for farming. For example, land clearing is often followed
by open burning. Burning and land clearing cause deforestation, which eventually
results in pollution. Secondly, the majority of the population are poorly educated
and do not have good knowledge of environment. One consequence of the
ignorance is the practice of uncontrolled logging either for industries or housing. It
is estimated that every year 78 millions hectares of barren land form as the result
of logging. Another practice is dumping of domestic and industrial waste to
ditches, canals, lakes and rivers which ends with polluted water. Thirdly, law
enforcement for natural conservation is very poor. The government agencies, who
are supposed to enforce laws, practice corruption for individual gains (Jones 2000:
13). They are often involved in illegal logging, bribery and illegal trading of scary or
endangered animals. In conclusion, severe pollution in developing countries like
Indonesia is caused by economic, educational and legal problems. It is advised that
developed countries should assist governments in developing countries in all the
three problems to create better living for the world.
 Topic Sentence at the End (Inductive—conflated with CS)

In Asia and the Pacific regions where there are large

areas of rainforest houses are built from woods and
bamboos. In Africa almost all houses are built from mud
and clay because woods are scarce. In Alaska where
most of the time land is covered by snow, the Eskimos
dig hole in the snow for their houses. In places where
there are abundant of stones such as in the Middle-East
areas, people made their houses from brics or blocks of
stone. They even make cave their dwelling. Thus,
bulding houses mainly depends on available materials in
the surrounding.
Albert Einstein, one of the world’s geniuses, failed his university
entrance examinations on the first attempt. William Faulkner, one of
America’s noted writers, never finished college because he could not
pass his English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered
one of the masters of English language, had to have a special tutoring
in English during elementary school. In conclusion, these few
examples show that failure in school does not always predict failure
in life.

In many parts of developing countries one can throw rubbish

carelessly. Ditches and canals are stagnant because of the garbage
from homes and industries. It is a fact that in pursuit of economic
advantages, uncontrolled and illegal loggings are common practices.
In addition, felling trees and land-clearing for farming and industries
causes serious deforestation. Legal measures for those who are
environmentally unfriendly are corrupt. All these facts indicate that
most of the third world countries are pursuing economic benefit at
the expense of environmental degradation.
Scientists confirm that the lake Toba forms as the result of
volcanic eruption. In addition, on seeing the lake beautiful
scenery artists say that the lake inspires them in their
artistic works. In a different way, economists view that
economic advantages are potentially gained by exploiting
the beauty of the lake and its surroundings. Politicians,
looking from another angle, asserts that the lake serves a
pride for Indonesia. By promoting the beautiful lake and
numerous heritages in the vicinity, Indonesia can gain
benefit of popularity. In a different manner, religious men
like preachers and clergy men see God’s divinity power in
the amazing beauty of nature. Thus, different people have
different perspective on the incredible lake Toba.
However, they all view that the lake offers advantages to
humanity.
 TS/CS in the Middle and End (mixture)
Buffaloes were employed to plough farms in Indonesia years ago.
The manure was also used as fertilizers. Farmers slaughtered the
animal for food. Skins of buffaloes are used for music instruments.
Thus, buffaloes played an important role in traditional farming in
Indonesia. In addition, ownership of the animal indicates social
status. For example, a family with buffaloes around is considered as
having a high social status. That is the reason for families keeping
buffaloes. A buffalo was also considered as having spiritual aspects.
To exemplify, in some parts of Indonesia it is believed that if a farmer
dreamt of riding on a buffalo, s/he was superstitiously predicted to
be powerful such as being promoted or appointed to be a social
leader. There is a prevailing belief in the society that when one
dreams of seeing a buffalo, that means that his land area or territory
is occupied by the earth ghosts of jembalang. S/he is expected to
hold ritual ceremonies to calm the ghosts and make them friendly to
the people. In conclusion, buffaloes in traditional life of Indonesia
indicate agricultural, social and religious functions.
 COHESIVE DEVICES

Also called Transitional Signals

Supporting sentences
first of all, secondly, finally, and, therefore, for example, another for
instance, in addition, as an example, in a case, to illustrate, to
exemplify, as an exemplification, to instance,…

Concluding sentence
in conclusion, to conclude, in summary, to conclude, to summarize,
thus, therefore, …
 Supporting Markers
• Example: for example, for instance, as an example,
as exemplification, to exemplify, as a case, as a
matter,…
• Illustration: as an illustration, to illustrate, to
demonstrate, to elaborate, as an elaboration,…
• Statistics: number, percentage, proportion, ratio,
indexes,
• Quotation: reporting or quoting (projection),
Circumstance of Angle
 Ideas in the paragraph
Ideas in the paragraph are developed by using three techniques, namely (1)
chronological order, (2) order of importance and (3) comparison or contrast.

1. Chronological Order (progress, development, evolution, series)

In a relatively short span of twenty-five years, there has been an incredible
evolution in the size and capabilities of computers. Today, computers smaller than
the tip of your fingernail have the same capabilities as the room-sized machines of
twenty-five years ago. The first computers were developed around 1945. They
were so large that they required special air-conditioned rooms. About twenty
years later, in the 1960s, desk-sized computers were developed. This represented
a gigantic advance. Before the end of the same decade, however, a third
generation of computers, which used simple integrated circuits and which were
even smaller and faster, had appeared. In 1971, the first microprocessor, less than
one square centimeter in size, was developed. Today, electronic engineers predict
that even smaller and more sophisticated computer will be on the market before
the end of this decade. Thus, evolution in the size and function of computer in a
period of a quarter of a century are oriented to the betterment of social welfares.
 Ideas in the paragraph
Progress is gradually being made in the fight
against cancer. In the early 1900s, few cancer
patients had any hope of long-term survival. In
the 1930s, less than one in five cancer victims lived
more than five years. In the 1950s, the ratio was
one in four. In the 1980s, based on medical
reports, more patients were saved from the
human life threat with the advances in medical
sciences. Currently, the ratio is down to one in
two. In conclusion, the gain from one in four to
one in two represents millions of lives saved each
year.
• 2 Order of Importance
• Inflation is an economic condition in which prices for consumer goods increase,
and the value of money or purchasing power decreases. There are three
important causes of inflation. The first and the most important cause may be
excessive government spending. For example, in order to finance a war or carry
special programs, the government may spend more money than it has received
through taxes and other revenues, thus creating a deficit. In order to offset this
deficit, the Treasury Department can simply expand the money supply by issuing
more paper money to meet the debts of government. This increase in the money
supply will cause the value of the dollar to automatically decreases. The second
cause of inflation occurs when the money supply increases faster than the supply
of goods. If people have more money, they will run out to buy popular goods like
television and computers, for example, a shortage will result. Industry will then
produce more at higher prices, to satisfy demand. Furthermore, if people think
that the prices of popular goods are going up, they will buy and even borrow
money at high interest rates to pay for them. Finally, if labor unions demand that
workers’ wages be increased to cover the high cost of living, industry will meet this
demand and add other costs of production on to the consumer. In summary, all of
these causes can create inflationary problems that can affect the welfare of a
nation. However, of all these three causes, excessive government spending may
be the most important.
• 3 Comparison
• Indonesia and Malaysia share similarities geographically, ethnically and socially.
The two countries lie in tropical regions with warm and humid climates with high
rainfall. Ethnically the populations are dominantly Malays in multiethnic and
multicultural communities where Chinese, Indians, Arabs, Ibans, Dayaks and
Europeans live harmoniously. The Malays as the majority group and natives to the
two countries are socially alike in terms of cultural views where they mostly rely
deeply on fates and destiny. It is believed that good and bad deeds are god’s
determinations. They are also accustomed to having rice and hot foods for their
main dishes. Thus, Indonesia and Malaysia are quite likely to be in the same stage
of development since both nations are similar in features of area, people and
culture.

4 Contrast
• Despite their similarities Indonesia and Malaysia differ in some respects. In terms
of governmental system, Indonesia is a republic with a president as the head of
government whereas Malaysia is a constitutional monarch ruled by the prime
minister as the government head and the king (Yang Dipertuan Agung) as the head
of whole country. Historically Indonesia was colonized by the Dutch for centuries
but Malaysia was a British colony. It is a fact that in Indonesia the people tend to
value western ways of thinking whereas in Malaysia people tend to mainly value
Islamic teachings and its heritages though the Moslems are less in proportion than
those in Indonesia. In conclusion, politically, historically and culturally the two
countries have differences.
 Supporting Details
Supporting sentences are developed by either one or all of the techniques of (1)
Examples, (2) Illustrations, (3) Statistics, and (4) Quotations

1 Examples
Although we all posses the same physical organs for perceiving the world—eyes
for seeing, ears for hearing, noses for smelling, skins for feeling, and mouths for
tasting—our perception of the world depends to a great extent on the language
we speak. In other words, we can not perceive things that we have not named.
Each language is like a pair of sunglasses through which we see the world. A
classic example of the relationship between language and perception is the
world snow. In the English language, there is only that one word to describe all
of the possible kinds of snow. In Eskimo language, however, there are as many
thirty-two different words for snow. For instance, the Eskimos have different
words for falling snow, snow on the ground, snow packed as hard as ice, slushy
snow, wind-driven snow, and what we might call cornmeal snow. In contrast,
cultures that rarely experience cold weather and snow may have only one word
to express several concepts that are differentiated in English. For example, the
ancient Aztec languages of Mexico used only one word to mean snow, cold, and
ice.
The difference among the world’s seas and oceans is
that the salinity varies in different climate zones. For
example, the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe is only one-
forth as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There
are two main reasons for this. First of all, in warm
climate zones water evaporates rapidly; therefore the
concentration of salt is greater. Second, the
surrounding is dry and consequently does not contribute
much fresh water to dilute the salty sea water. In cold
climate zones, on the other hand, water evaporates
slowly. Furthermore, the runoff created by melting
snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to
dilute the saline sea water.
• 2 Illustrative Incident
Nonverbal communications or body language is communication by facial
expressions, head or eye movements, hand signals, and body postures. It can just
as important to understanding as words are. Misunderstanding—often amusing
but sometimes serious—can arise between people from different cultures if they
misinterpret non-verbal signals. Take for example, the differences in meaning of
gestures very common in the United States: a circle made with thumb and index
finger. To an American it means that everything is OK. To Japanese, it means that
you are talking about money. In France it means that something is worthless, and
in Greece it is an obscene (indecent) gesture. Therefore, an American could
unknowingly offend a Greek by using that particular signal. The following true
incident illustrates how conflicting nonverbal signals can cause serious
misunderstandings. While lecturing to his poetry class at Ain Shams University in
Cairo, a British professor became so relaxed that he leaned back in his chair and
revealed the bottom of his foot to the astonished class. Making such a gesture in
Moslem society is the worst kind of insult. The next day the Cairo newspapers
carried headlines about the student demonstration that resulted, and they
denounced British arrogance and demanded that the professor be sent home.
• 3 Figures and Statistics

The world’s population is growing at geometric rate. It doubled from 1750 to

1900, a period of 150 years. It doubled again from 1965, a period of only 65 years.
At the current rate of increase, it is expected to double again by the year 2000, a
period of only 30 years, according to a recent report published by the World
Health Organization of the United Nations. The world’s population in 1978 had
reached 4.3 billion and is increasing at the rate of 70 million each year. By the end
of this century, there will be 7 billion people on Earth.

America is becoming a society of “loners.” Since 1970, the number of Americans

living alone has been increasing, according to a Census Bureau report. The number
of men living alone has more than doubled in the last several years and the
number of women living by themselves is up 35 percent. Among people under the
age of 25, the number of men living alone has nearly tripled since 1970, from
274,000 to 752,000, and the number of women has risen from 282,000 to 588,000.
According to the Census Bureau there were 15.5 million people living alone in
1977. Although the number of men living by themselves has increased rapidly
since 1970, most of those alone are still women—64 percent of the
• 4 Quotation
• (1)
The increased use of computers in business has been accompanied by a
corresponding increase in computer crime. Computers are used in business in
ever-increasing numbers to store, process and distribute information. At the same
time, thefts by computer are on the rise. The costs to the victims of computer
crime are very high. In his book, Crime by Computer, computer expert Don B.
Parker estimated that financial losses to business from computer thefts would
exceed $10 billion in 1978. Although Parker’s estimate is based on documented
cases, no one really knows the extent of computer crime because thefts by
computers are almost impossible to discover. “There is just no reliable way to
detect computer thefts,” Parker said. “It is not just money they control; they
control data, and data is power.”

(2)
• The danger of overpopulation cannot be underestimated. Dr. David Doom,
President of Planned Parenthood, maintains that the world will be uninhabitable
by the year 2050 unless the rate of growth is reduced. According to Dr. Doom, the
world’s food production cannot meet the need of 7 billion people, so famine is an
inevitable consequence of uncontrolled population growth. The World Health
Organization agrees with Dr. Doom. It recently published a report noting that
famine already exists in many parts of Africa
 CONCLUSION

Three techniques of deriving conclusion

1. Paraphrase
2. Summary
3. Implication

Tourism is the main revenue of the state of Hawaii.

Every year millions of people visit the islands. When it
is winter in the north, every fifteen minutes planes land
with hundreds of passengers. New hotels are built to
accommodate visitors. In addition, new roads are
opened every year to link tourist spots.
Telecommunication facilities are installed for the ease
and comforts of the visitors. Thus, non-smoke industry
is the main income for the Hawaiians.
 Paraphrase
The topic sentence is expressed in other words with similar
meaning.
• Tourism is the main revenue of the state of Hawaii.
Every year millions of people visit the islands. When it
is winter in the north, every fifteen minutes planes land
with hundreds of passengers. Hotels are built to
accommodate visitors. New roads are opened every
year to link tourist spots. Telecommunication facilities
are installed for the ease and comforts of the visitors.
Thus, non-smoke industry is the main income for the
Hawaiians.
• Thus, non-smoke industry is the main income for the
Hawaiians.
 Explanation
Paraphrase= say the same meaning by using other words

The woman delivered a baby

The girl gave birth to a baby

We attended a night class

We hold a night lecture

I met my mother-in-law yesterday.

I saw my wife’s mother yesterday.
I saw my husband’s mother yesterday.
 Explanation
summarize (v), summary (n)
summarize = to condense (interlocking definition)
Summarize = to make thing shorter
to make expressions shorter
The man went to the market. He went there with his
three sons.
The man went to the market with his three sons.

Indonesia successfully developed its economy in 1980’s.

The success changed ways of life of the people who
lived in the villages.
Indonesia’ s 1980’s economic development changed
socio-rural life.
 Summary
The topic sentence or supporting sentences are condensed or made
shorter.

Tourism is the main revenue of the state of Hawaii. Every year

millions of people visit the islands. When it is winter in the north,
every fifteen minutes planes land with hundreds of passengers.
Hotels are built to accommodate visitors. New roads are opened
every year to link tourist spots. Telecommunication facilities are
installed for the ease and comforts of the visitors.

Thus, tourists, hotels, roads and communications instruments play

important roles to the development of economy of the state of
Hawaii.

In conclusion, revenues of the tourisms sectors are used for the

comforts of the passangesr who visit the islands.
 Imply
Imply = mean in other modes
mean in other ways
Implication = meaning in other modes
meaning in other ways
interpretation in other contexts
We will hold an operation tomorrow
 Implication
The topic sentence or supporting sentences are interpreted into another or
other meanings.
Tourism is the main revenue of the state of Hawaii. Every year millions of
people visit the islands. When it is winter in the north, every fifteen minutes
planes land with hundreds of passengers. Hotels are built to accommodate
visitors. New roads are opened every year to link tourist spots.
Telecommunication facilities are installed for the ease and comforts of the
visitors.
1. Thus, the US tourism industry is often associated to the state of Hawaii.
2. Thus, almost 50 planes land in Hawaii during the day time.
3. Thus, the Hawaiians are accustomed to meeting strangers in their homeland .
4. In conclusion, construction workers are urgently needed in the
state of Hawaii
5. In summary, the state of Hawaii needs a ot of workers in hotel
sectors.
 Quotation in Academic Text
Modified APA=American Psychological Association
Content-based Quotation
Projection and its metaphoric realizations

Jones (1995: 12) said, ”Education is one of indicators in social prosperity ...”
According to Jones (1995: 12) ”Education is one of indicators in social prosperity ...”

Quotation in the Body of Text

Use appropriate projecting process such as state, suggest, observe, elaborate, advise,
claim, assert, speculate, hold, confirms....

Initial, Medial and Final Position of Quotation

Frost (2002: 68) says that communication is typically …
• According to Frost (2002: 68) communication is typically …
• With reference to Frost’s (2002: 68) statement/speculation/observation
communication is typically …
• It is maintained that education is an indicator of social prosperity (Jones 1995:
12)
 Various Kinds of Quotation
Furze and Stafford (1996: 24) observed that social
mobility is important...

Furze, Stafford and Kalanzis (1996: 24) observed

that social mobility is important...

Furze, Stafford, Kalanzis, Jones, Gibbons and

Hartford (1996: 24) observed that social mobility
is ….(first mention)

Furze et al (1996: 24) observed that…(second

mention)
 References
Alpabethical Order

Frost, C. 2002. Reporting for Journalism. London: Routledge.

Furze, B. and C. Stafford. 1996. Society and Change: A Sociological Introduction to

Contemporary Australia. Melbourne: Macmillan.

Furze, B, C. Stafford, M. Kalanzis, H. Jones, J. Gibbons and M. Hartford. 1996: Society and
Change: A Sociological Introduction to Contemporary Australia. Melbourne: Macmillan.

Patterson, R. 1996. The Media: Television Broadcasting in Australia in the 1990s. In Furze, B.
and C. Stafford (eds). Society and Change: A Sociological Introduction to Contemporary
Australia. Melbourne: Macmillan.

Patterson, R. 1996. “The Media: Television Broadcasting in Australia in the 1990s”. In Furze,
B. (ed.). Society and Change: A Sociological Introduction to Contemporary Australia.
Melbourne: Macmillan.

Patterson, R. 1996. The Media: Television Broadcasting in Australia in the 1990s

Http//:www.nklys.html....accessed 12 July 2005
 Journal

References
Bradford, J. 2007. Applied Linguistic
Inventories. Journal of Linguistics. XV, 2

Bradford, J [12 July 2007] Applied Linguistic

Inventories. The Sydney Morning Herald.
 Food Licence
• Food license is required of restaurants or food vendors in Medan
for the reasons of hygienic food, food producers’ and customers’
satisfaction and government control of food trading. Firstly, food
license sets criteria or requirements of good food for the
customers. This implies that the food license guarantees that
healthy foods or cuisines are provided to the customers and the
provision is hygienically done. This is urgently needed at the
moment due to the fact that more than 60% of the foods and
meals sold in restaurants and vendor’s shops contain hazardous
substances for heath. Another advantage of applying food license
is that the customers and food providers feel content at having
and trading meals at public places, such as restaurants and shops.
For example, one can enjoys one’s meals without feeling scared of
having stomach ache.
 Food License
The restaurant owners and food vendors also feel secure when customers
complain on their menus. They can simply produce the license and maintain its
reputation by referring to the guides set in the license. Finally, food license can
function as a significant means for the government to control food provision
and sales. For example, by referring to the license, the government can control
quality, quantity and price of foods. In this way, as Jones (1999: 23) and Maulin
(2000: 157) observed, the government can also set fair competitions among
food traders and producers. In summary, the issuing of food license in Medan
can function as an effective means to provide healthy food, advantages for food
producers and consumers and good government’s control on fair provision and
trading of foods.

References
• Jones, A. 1999. Food and Beverage in Modern Life. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins.
• Maulin, H. 2000. Food Industries and Trading. London: Academic Press.
 Translation
Translated text in the target language should
sound natural. If it does not, the translation is
not properly done.
I bought a book.
1. Saya membeli sebuah buku.
2. Saya membeli buku. (natural)

Translation is meaning based activity and there is no

word for word replacement. It is contextually
determined.
you—engkau, kau, kamu, abang,
 Translation 1
1. Did you go to the party?
2. A wife said to her husband, ” You must go
now”
3. “You must go to bed now”, said a mother to
her son.
4. A husband said to his wife, ”I saw your
mother this morning and she wanted me to
send you her regards”
 Translation 2
One word may mean differently depending
on the linguistic contexts
• We do not want to eat the green fruit.
• The lady is wearing a green hat.
• John is still green; he is not supposed to do
this task.
• Green Revolution began in Europe.
• You are right.
• You don’t have a right to do this.
• Give me the right money.
• Put the book right here.
 Relation of Meaning in Clauses
1. Elaboration: one clause states the same
meaning with the following clauses by
- ‘saying in other words’
- giving examples
- specifying or emphasizing
2. Extension: one clause adds the meaning of
another one: and, but, or, istead
3. Enhancement: specifying a clause with reference
to time, place, purpose, condition, cause effect,
condition
• Gold, a precious stone, is prized for two important
characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous (shining)
beauty that is resistant to corrosion (chemical damage).
Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins and ornamental
purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain
beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains
as untarnished (unchanged in color) today as the day it was
minted twenty centuries ago. Another important
characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and
science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of
industrial applications. For instance, the most recent use of
gold is in astronauts’ suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated
heat shields for protections outside the spaceship. In
conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty, but
also for its utility.
Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert
tremendous power. These violent storms are often
a hundred miles in diameter and their winds can
reach velocities (speed) of seventy-five miles per
hour or more. Furthermore, the strong winds and
heavy rainfall that accompany them can completely
destroy a small town in a couple of hours. In
addition, the energy that is released by hurricane in
one day exceeds the total energy consumed by
humankind throughout the world in one year.
Thus, cyclone releases a vast energy which may
even blow a house into small pieces in seconds.
Synonyms, words that have the same meaning, do
not always have the same emotional meaning. For
example, the words stingy and frugal both mean
careful with money. However, to call a person
stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much
more positive connotation. Similarly, a person
wants to be slender but not skinny, and aggressive
but not pushy. Further, you may positively envy
your friend’s success and others tend to be jealous
of your success. Therefore, you should be careful in
choosing words because many so-called synonyms
are not really synonymous at all.
 Class of Words
I Content Words
1. Noun : man, cat, tree...
2. Verb : do, make, see...
3. Adjective : old, happy, handsome...
4. Adverb : quickly, happily, fast...
II Structural Words
1. Preposition: in , at, on...
2. Pronoun : I, he, she...
3. Conjunction: and, or, but...
4. Auxiliary : is, have, will...
5. Determiner : the, a, some...
6. Particle : yes, no, oh, well...
 Functions of Words
- Content word is the ingredient in the sentence.
- Structural word is the glue or cement to link the
ingredients.

The man sent the book to Australia.

man sent book Australia.
the the to

The man sent the book to Australia

The man wrote the letter neatly
SUBJECT PREDICATOR OBJECT ADJUNCT
NOUN VERB NOUN ADVERB
 Expansion of Words
Noun
men
Asian men
young Asian men
two young Asian men
the two young Asian men
the first two young south Asian men
The first two young south Asian men in the room
The first two young south Asian men in the room came out
Verb
come
will come
will be coming
will have been coming
will have been going to come

Adjective
young
very young
very young handsome

Adverb
neatly
very neatly
very neatly indeed
 Derivation of Word
Noun Verb Adjective Adverb
relation relate relative relatively
form formalize formal formally

(law) legalize legal legally

height heighten high highly

agreement agree

danger endanger dangerous dangerously

cotinuation continue continous continously

relation
relation become good
The relation becomes good
man like relation
The man likes our relation
relate
man relate son mother
The man related the son to his mother.
 The meaning of Word
The meaning of a word depends on context
1. Linguistic context
2. Social context
• We do not want to eat the green fruit.
• The lady is wearing a green hat.
• John is still green; he is not supposed to do this task.
• Green Revolution began in Europe.

• You are right.

• You don’t have a right to do this.
• Give me the right money.
• Put the book right here.
• We should support movements for human right.
 Language and Social Context

•
IDEOLOGY

CULTURE

REGISTER

LANGAUGE
 Meaning and Social Context
1. We will hold an operation tomorrow.
2. Ben was absent because he was ill.
3. Ben’s absence was caused by his illness.
4. She carried thousands of passangers on board.
5. No, we do not want the room with number 13.
6. She is the scapegoat in this case.
7. We know she reads a lot; she is really a bookworm.
8. She is lovely like the morning star.
9. Benni tidak hadir sebab dia sakit.
10. Ketidakhadiran Benni disebabkan oleh penyakitnya
11. Bapak pergi ibu marah
12. Kepergian bapak disebabkan kemarahan ibu
 Social Context
1. My son goes to SMA I Medan.
2. I attend the UNIMED.
3. “You must go to bed now,” said a mother to her
son.
4. “You must go to bed now,” said a wife to her
husband.
5. We are leaving now.
6. We are going now.
 Learning and Enhancement of Meaning
1. Repetition (complete, partial/derivational)
2. Synonymy (no two words with identical meanings in all respects)
3. Antonym (binary, cline/continuum, relational)
4. Hyponymy/co-hyponym: member—group relation)
5. Meronymy/co-meronymy: part—whole relation
6. Collocation
7. More senses used
thorough
The man did the work thoroughly. ..It is a thorough work…he is not angry with the
man because his work is thorough.

lethal
John saw a snake. The snake bit a cat. The cat ran. In five minutes the cat
died. Thus, the snake is lethal. It is not alive anymore.

The possum comes out at night. The animal is carnivorous. It usulaly eats
chicken and farmers hunt it.
1. Ben bought a book. The book was given to Bill.
Dia menulis buku itu. Sebagai penulis buku itu, dia menyadari kelemahannya.
2. Soon the man left. He decided to depart early.
3. All his men were declared to be dead. Miraculously, one was found alive.
Did you cope with the cold weather? I know you were born in hot and humid area.
frozen — cold ---cool— warm — hot — boil — evaporate
borrow—lend, give –take, boy—girl
4. Hyponymy

ANIMAL

tick ant cockroach snake rat cat tiger elephant whale

animal—snake: hyponymy
tick—whale: co-hyponymy

TREE

root trunk branch twig leaf bloom

root—tree: meronymy
root—leaf: co-meronymy

To test if a relation is one of hyponomy or meronymy, delete one . The remaining set constitutes the group
in hyponymy and the deletion makes the group collapse in meronymy.
 COLOCATION
SNOW—WHITE
NEIGHBOUR—FRIENDLY
More than one type of cohesive device may be used
in a text. In principle the more types of cohesive
device are used in a text, the more cohesive the
text becomes.
Last week Benny with his class mate went to the zoo.
He saw an elephant. The animal is huge with a long
trunk. Its foot is as large as a tray. Then the
children went to observe a python. The snake was
shy and hid its pointed face in the bush
 Assignment

Write an Exposition OR Discussion genre in at least

400 words on one of the following topics.
1. Death sentence for drug traffickers
2. The function of celebrities in Indonesian
parliament
3. The quality of Indonesian education