Transfer Functions

• An algebraic expression
Chapter 4

• Convenient representation of a linear,

dynamic model.
• A transfer function (TF) relates one input
and one output:
x t y t
 system 
X  s Y  s
 Transfer Functions
• Independent of initial conditions
• Independent of particular choice of forcing functions
Chapter 4

The following terminology is used:

x y
input output
forcing function response
“cause” “effect”
 Definition of the transfer function:
Let G(s) denote the transfer function between an input, x, and an
output, y. Then, by definition
Y  s
G  s 
X  s
Chapter 4

where:
Y  s  = L  y  t  
X  s  = L  x  t  

Development of Transfer Functions

Example: Stirred Tank Heating System

Chapter 4

Figure 2.3 Stirred-tank heating process with constant holdup, V.

 Recall the previous dynamic model, assuming constant liquid
holdup and flow rates:
dT
V C  wC  Ti  T   Q (2-36)
dt

Suppose the process is at steady state:

Chapter 4

0  wC  Ti  T   Q (2)

Subtract (2) from (2-36):

dT
V C  wC  Ti  Ti    T  T     Q  Q  (3)
dt
 But,

dT 
V C  wC  Ti  T    Q (4)
dt

where the “deviation variables” are

Chapter 4

T   T  T , Ti  Ti  Ti , Q  Q  Q

Take L of (4):
V  C  sT   s   T   0    wC Ti s   T   s    Q  s  (5)

At the initial steady state, T′(0) = 0.

 Rearrange (5) to solve for

 K   1 
T  s    Q  s     Ti s  (6)
  s 1   s 1
where
Chapter 4

1 V
K and  
wC w

T (s)=G1(s)Q(s)  G2(s)Ti(s)

 G1 and G2 are transfer functions and independent of the
inputs, Q′ and Ti′.

Note G1 (process) has gain K and time constant τ.

Chapter 4

G2 (disturbance) has gain=1 and time constant τ.

Gain = G(s=0). Both are first order processes.

If there is no change in inlet temperature (Ti′= 0),

then Ti′(s) = 0.

System can be forced by a change in either Ti or Q

(see Example 4.1).
 Conclusions about TFs
1. Note that (6) shows that the effects of changes in both Q
and Ti are additive. This always occurs for linear, dynamic
models (like TFs) because the Principle of Superposition is
Chapter 4

valid.
2. The TF model enables us to determine the output response to
any change in an input.
3. Use deviation variables to eliminate initial conditions for TF
models.
 Example: Stirred Tank Heater
K  0.05   2.0
0.05 No change in Ti′
T  Q
2s  1
Step change in Q(t): 1500 cal/sec to 2000 cal/sec
Chapter 4

500

Q 
s
0.05 500 25
T  
2s  1 s s (2s  1)
What is T′(t)? From line 13, Table 3.1
25
T (t )  25[1  e  t /
] 
 T (s) 
s ( s  1)
 t / 2
T (t )  25[1  e ]
 Properties of Transfer Function Models

1. Steady-State Gain
The steady-state of a TF can be used to calculate the
steady-state change in an output due to a steady-state
Chapter 4

change in the input. For example, suppose we know two

steady states for an input, u, and an output, y. Then we can
calculate the steady-state gain, K, from:

y2  y1
K (4-38)
u2  u1

For a linear system, K is a constant. But for a nonlinear

system, K will depend on the operating condition  u , y  .
 Calculation of K from the TF Model:
If a TF model has a steady-state gain, then:

K  lim G  s  (14)
s 0
Chapter 4

• This important result is a consequence of the Final Value

Theorem

• Note: Some TF models do not have a steady-state gain (e.g.,

integrating process in Ch. 5)
 2. Order of a TF Model
Consider a general n-th order, linear ODE:
dny dy n1 dy d mu
an  an 1   a1  a0 y  bm m 
dt n
dt n 1 dt dt
d m1u du
Chapter 4

bm1 m1
   b1  b0u (4-39)
dt dt

Take L, assuming the initial conditions are all zero. Rearranging

gives the TF:
m

Y  s
i
b s i

G  s   i 0
(4-40)
U  s n
i
a s i

i 0
 Definition:
The order of the TF is defined to be the order of the denominator
polynomial.
Note: The order of the TF is equal to the order of the ODE.
Chapter 4

Physical Realizability:

For any physical system, n  m in (4-38). Otherwise, the

system response to a step input will be an impulse. This can’t
happen.
Example:

du
a0 y  b1  b0u and step change in u (4-41)
dt
 2nd order process
General 2nd order ODE:
d2y dy
a 2 +b  y=Ku
dt dt

as 
Chapter 4

Laplace Transform: 2
 bs+1  Y(s)  KU(s)

Y ( s) K
G(s)   2
U ( s ) as  bs  1
 b  b 2  4a
2 roots s1,2 
2a
b2 : real roots
1
4a
b2 : imaginary roots
1
4a
 Examples
1. 2 b 2 16
  1.333  1
3s 2  4 s  1 4a 12

3s 2  4 s  1  (3s  1)( s  1)  3( s  1 )( s  1)
3
t
transforms to e 3
, e t (real roots )
Chapter 4

(no oscillation)
2. 2 b2 1
 1
s2  s  1 4a 4

3 3
s 2  s  1  ( s  0.5  j )( s  0.5  j)
2 2
0.5t 3 0.5t 3
transforms to e cos t, e sin t
2 2
(oscillation)
 From Table 3.1, line 17

- bt L 
e sin  t 
( s  b) 2   2
2 2
2
= 2
s  s 1 2  3
Chapter 4

(s + 0.5)   
 2 
 Two IMPORTANT properties (L.T.)

A. Multiplicative Rule
Chapter 4

B. Additive Rule
 Example 1:
Place sensor for temperature downstream from heated
tank (transport lag)

Distance L for plug flow,

L
Chapter 4

Dead time 
V
V = fluid velocity

T(s) K1
Tank: G1 = =
U(s) 1+ 1s
Ts (s) K 2 e - s
Sensor: G 2 = = K 2  1,  2 is very small
T(s) 1 +  2s
(neglect)
Overall transfer function:
Ts Ts T K 1 K 2 e  s
   G 2  G1 
U T U 1  1s
 Example 2: Consider the system shown below. The
system consists of two liquid surge tanks in series so that
the outflow from the first tank is the inflow to the second
tank.
Chapter 4
 Equations (2.56) and (2.57) are valid for each tank.
dh1
For tank 1, A1  qi  q1 (4 - 48)
dt
1
q1  h1 (4 - 49)
R1
Chapter 4

Substituting (4-49) into (4-48) eliminates q1:

dh1 1
A1  qi  h1 (4 - 50)
dt R1

Putting (4-49) and (4-50) into deviation variable form gives

dh1 1
A1  qi  h1 (4 - 51)
dt R1
1
q1  h1 (4 -52)
R1
 The transfer function relating H 1 ( s) to Qi(s) is found
by transforming (4-51) and rearranging to obtain
H 1( s ) R1 K1
  (4-53)
Qi( s) A1 R1s  1  1s  1
Chapter 4

Similarly, the transfer function relating Q1 ( s) to

H 1 ( s ) is obtained by transforming (4-52).

Q1( s ) 1 1 (4-54)
 
H1( s ) R1 K1
 The same procedure leads to the corresponding transfer
functions for Tank 2,
H 2 ( s ) R2 K2
  (4-55)
Q1( s ) A2 R2 s  1  2 s  1

Q2 ( s ) 1 1
Chapter 4

  (4.56)
H 2 ( s) R2 K 2

Note that the desired transfer function relating the outflow

from Tank 2 to the inflow to Tank 1 can be derived by
forming the product of (4-53) through (4-56).
 Q2 ( s ) Q2 ( s ) H 2 ( s ) Q1 ( s ) H 1 ( s )
 (4-57)
Qi( s ) H 2 ( s ) Q1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) Qi( s )

or Q2 ( s ) 1 K 2 1 K1
Chapter 4

 (4-58)
Qi( s ) K 2  2 s  1 K 1  1 s  1

which can be simplified to give

Q2 ( s ) 1

Qi( s )  1 s  1 2 s  1 (4-59)
 Linearization of Nonlinear Models
• Required to derive transfer function.
• Good approximation near a given operating point.
• Gain, time constants may change with operating point.
• Use 1st order Taylor series.
Chapter 4

dy
 f ( y, u ) (4-60)
dt
f f
f ( y, u )  f ( y, u )  ( y  y)  (u  u ) (4-61)
y y ,u
u y ,u

Subtract steady-state equation from dynamic equation

dy f f
 y  u (4-62)
dt y s u s
 Example 3:
q0: control variable,
qi: disturbance variable

dh
A  qi  q0 ...(1)
dt
Chapter 4

Use L.T. AsH ( s )  q ( s )  q ( s ) (deviations)

i 0

suppose q0 is constant q 0  0
AsH(s)  qi(s)
H(s) 1 pure integrator (ramp)
 ...(2) for step change in qi
qi(s) As
More realistically, if q0 is manipulated by a flow
control valve,
q0  Cv h ...(3)
nonlinear element
 Figure 2.5
Chapter 4

1
q h
RV RV: line resistance

dh 1
A  qi  h ...(4) linear ODE : eq. (4-74)
dt RV

if q  CV h ...(5)
 Substitute linearized expression of
(5) into (1): q  Cv h
 dq 
Linearised version of (5) is   q  ( h  h ) 
 dh h 
dh 1 1 1 
A
dt
 qi  C v h  h 
R
(6)  Cv h  C v   hh
  
2 h 
Chapter 4

1
The steady-state version of (3) is:  Cv h  h
R

0  qi  Cv h (7)
dh dh
Subtract (7) from (6) and let qi  qi  qi , noting that 
dt dt
gives the linearized model:

dh 1
A  qi  h
 (8)
dt R
Chapter 4
 Conclusions
• Definition of transfer functions
• Development of transfer functions
• Properties of transfer functions
• 1st order process
• 2nd order process
• Integrating process (Non-self regulating)
• Examples