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x (t ) y (t )
Chapter 4
→ system →
X (s) Y (s)
x y
input output
forcing function response
“cause” “effect”
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Definition of the transfer function:
Let G(s) denote the transfer function between an input, x, and an
output, y. Then, by definition
Y (s)
G (s)
X (s)
Chapter 4
where:
Y ( s ) L y ( t )
X ( s ) L x ( t )
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Chapter 4
3
Recall the previous dynamic model, assuming constant liquid
holdup and flow rates:
dT
V ρC = wC (Ti − T ) + Q (1)
dt
Suppose the process is initially at steady state:
Chapter 4
T ( 0 ) = T , Ti ( 0 ) = Ti , Q ( 0 ) = Q ( 2)
where T steady-state value of T, etc. For steady-state
conditions:
0 = wC (Ti − T ) + Q (3)
dT ′
V ρC = wC (Ti′ − T ′ ) + Q′
Chapter 4
(6)
dt
where we have introduced the following “deviation variables”,
also called “perturbation variables”:
T ′ T − T , Ti′ Ti − Ti , Q′ Q − Q (7)
Take L of (6):
V ρ C sT ′ ( s ) − T ′ ( t = 0 ) = wC Ti′( s ) − T ′ ( s ) − Q′ ( s ) (8)
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Evaluate T ′ ( t = 0 ) .
But since our assumed initial condition was that the process
was initially at steady state, i.e., T ( 0 ) = T it follows from (9)
Chapter 4
that T ′ ( 0 ) = 0.
Note: The advantage of using deviation variables is that the
initial condition term becomes zero. This simplifies the later
analysis.
K 1
T ′( s) = Q′ ( s ) + Ti′( s ) (10)
τ s +1 τ s +1
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where two new symbols are defined:
1 Vρ
K and τ (11)
wC w
T ′( s) K
= (12)
Q′ ( s ) τ s + 1
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Transfer Function Between T ′and Ti′ :
Suppose that Q is constant at its steady-state value:
Q ( t ) = Q ⇒ Q′ ( t ) = 0 ⇒ Q′ ( s ) = 0
Thus, rearranging
Chapter 4
T ′( s ) 1
= (13)
Ti′( s ) τ s + 1
Comments:
1. The TFs in (12) and (13) show the individual effects of Q and Ti
on T. What about simultaneous changes in both Q and Ti ?
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• Answer: See (10). The same TFs are valid for simultaneous
changes.
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Properties of Transfer Function Models
1. Steady-State Gain
The steady-state of a TF can be used to calculate the steady-
state change in an output due to a steady-state change in the
Chapter 4
y2 − y1
K= (4-38)
u2 − u1
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Calculation of K from the TF Model:
If a TF model has a steady-state gain, then:
K = lim G ( s ) (14)
s →0
Chapter 4
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2. Order of a TF Model
Consider a general n-th order, linear ODE:
dny dy n−1 dy d mu
an + an−1 + … a1 + a0 y = bm m +
dt n
dt n−1 dt dt
d m−1u du
Chapter 4
bm−1 m −1
+ … + b1 + b0u (4-39)
dt dt
Y (s)
∑i
b s i
G (s) = = i =0
(4-40)
U (s) n
∑i
a s i
i =0
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Definition:
The order of the TF is defined to be the order of the denominator
polynomial.
Note: The order of the TF is equal to the order of the ODE.
Chapter 4
Physical Realizability:
For any physical system, n ≥ m in (4-38). Otherwise, the system
response to a step input will be an impulse. This can’t happen.
Example:
du
a0 y = b1 + b0u and step change in u (4-41)
dt
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3. Additive Property
Suppose that an output is influenced by two inputs and that
the transfer functions are known:
Y (s) Y (s)
= G1 ( s ) and = G2 ( s )
U1 ( s ) U2 ( s)
Chapter 4
Y ( s ) = G1 ( s )U1 ( s ) + G2 ( s )U 2 ( s )
The graphical representation (or block diagram) is:
U1(s) G1(s)
Y (s )
U2(s) G2(s)
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4. Multiplicative Property
Suppose that,
Y (s) U2 ( s)
= G2 ( s ) and = G3 ( s )
U2 ( s) U3 ( s )
Then,
Chapter 4
Y ( s ) = G2 ( s )U 2 ( s ) and U 2 ( s ) = G3 ( s )U 3 ( s )
Substitute,
Y ( s ) = G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )U 3 ( s )
Or,
Y (s)
= G2 ( s ) G3 ( s ) U3 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s ) Y (s)
U3 ( s )
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Linearization of Nonlinear Models
• So far, we have emphasized linear models which can be
transformed into TF models.
• But most physical processes and physical models are nonlinear.
- But over a small range of operating conditions, the behavior
Chapter 4
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• Consider a nonlinear, dynamic model relating two process
variables, u and y:
dy
= f ( y, u ) (4-60)
dt
∂f ∂f
f ( u, y ) = f ( u , y ) + u′ + y′ (4-61)
∂u y ∂y y
where u ′ = u − u and y′ = y − y . Note that the partial derivative
terms are actually constants because they have been evaluated at
the nominal operating point, ( u , y ) .
Substitute (4-61) into (4-60) gives:
dy ∂f ∂f
= f (u , y ) + u′ + y′
dt ∂u y ∂y y 17
The steady-state version of (4-60) is:
0 = f (u , y )
(4-62)
dt ∂u y ∂y y
Linearized
model
Example: Liquid Storage System
dh
qi Mass balance: = qi − q (1)
A
dt
Valve relation: q = Cv h (2)
h A = area, Cv = constant
q
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Combine (1) and (2),
dh
A = qi − Cv h (3)
dt
Linearize term,
Chapter 4
1
h≈ h− (h − h ) (4)
2 h
Or
1
h ≈ h − h′ (5)
R
where:
R 2 h
h′ h−h
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Substitute linearized expression (5) into (3):
dh 1
A = qi − Cv h − h′ (6)
dt R
0 = qi − Cv h (7)
Subtract (7) from (6) and let qi′ qi − qi , noting that dh = dh′
gives the linearized model: dt dt
dh′ 1
A = qi′ − h′ (8)
dt R
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Summary:
In order to linearize a nonlinear, dynamic model:
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State-Space Models
x = Ax + Bu + Ed (4-90)
y = Cx (4-91)
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where:
x = the state vector
u = the control vector of manipulated variables (also called
control variables)
d = the disturbance vector
Chapter 4
Solution
The linearized CSTR model in Eqs. 4-84 and 4-85 can be written
in vector-matrix form:
dc′A a a12 c′A 0
dt 11 + T′
= s
(4-92)
dT ′ a a22 T ′ b2
dt 21
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Let x1 c′A and x2 T ,′ and denote their time derivatives by x1
and x2 . Suppose that the steam temperature Ts can be
manipulated. For this situation, there is a scalar control variable,
u Ts′ , and no modeled disturbance. Substituting these
definitions into (4-92) gives,
Chapter 4
x1 a11 a12 x1 0
x = a + u (4-93)
2 21 a22 x2 b2
A B
which is in the form of Eq. 4-90 with x = col [x1, x2]. (The symbol
“col” denotes a column vector.)
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a) If both T and cA are measured, then y = x, and C = I in
Eq. 4-91, where I denotes the 2x2 identity matrix. A and B are
defined in (4-93).
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