METAL FORMING:

WIRE DRAWING PROCESSES

 Drawing is an operation in which the cross section of
a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it through a
die opening.

 General features of the process are similar to

extrusion.
 Difference is that work is pulled through the die in
drawing, whereas it is pushed through the die in
extrusion.
 Presence of tensile stresses is obvious in drawing, but
compression also plays a significant role because the
metal is squeezed down as it passes through the die
opening.
 For this reason, the deformation that occurs in drawing
is sometimes referred to as indirect compression.

 Bar drawing is used for large diameter bar and rod

stock, while wire drawing applies to small diameter
stock upto 0.03 mm.
 Wire is drawn from coils consisting of several hundred
metres of wire and is passed through a series of draw
dies.
 The number of dies varies typically between 4 and 12.
  In a drawing operation, the change in size of the work
is usually given by the area reduction, r, normally
expressed in percentage and defined as:
  𝐴𝑜− 𝐴𝑓
𝑟=
𝐴𝑜
 
where Ao is original area of work,
Af is final area.

 In bar or rod drawing the term draft, d, is used to

denote the difference between original () and final
(stock diameters:
 
d=
 
Analysis of Wire Drawing
 If no friction or redundant work occurred in drawing,
true strain, is determined as follows:
  𝑨𝒐 𝟏
𝝐 =𝐥𝐧 =𝐥𝐧
𝑨𝒇 𝟏 −𝒓
The stress that results from this ideal deformation is
given by:
 
=

 
where = is the average flow stress based on the value
of strain above.
 
Because friction is present in drawing and the work
metal experiences inhomogeneous
deformation, the actual stress is larger than
provided by the equation above.
 In addition to the ratio Ao/Af, other variables that
influence draw stress are:
 die angle
 coefficient of friction at the work–die interface.

A number of methods have been proposed

for predicting draw stress, based on values of these
parameters. According to Shey,

 
 
where µ is the die-work coefficient of friction;
α is die angle (half-angle)
is a factor that accounts for
inhomogeneous deformation which is
determined as follows for a round cross
section:   𝐷
∅ =0.88 ±0.12
𝐿𝑐
where D is average diameter of work during
drawing,
Lc is contact length of the work with the
draw die.

Values of D and Lc can be determined from the

following:
  
  𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑓
; 𝐿𝑐 =
2sin 𝛼

• The draw force is then the area of the drawn cross

section multiplied by the draw stress:
 
=
drawing

 
The drawing power, , required is:

𝑃𝑑𝑟 =𝐹 𝑣 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
 

 
where
Maximum Reduction per Pass

 As the reduction increases, draw stress increases. If the

reduction is large enough, draw stress will exceed the
yield strength of the exiting metal.
 The drawn wire elongates instead of new material
being squeezed through the die opening.
 For wire drawing to be successful, maximum draw
stress must be less than the yield strength of the exiting
metal.
 
Assuming an ideal case of a perfectly plastic metal
(n=0), no friction, and no redundant work,the
maximum possible draw stress is equal to the yield
strength of the work material.
 Expressing this using the equation for draw stress
under conditions of ideal deformation, and setting = Y
, n= 0;

 
ln

 
This means that .
 
In order for ϵmax to be zero, then must be equal to the
natural logarithm base e.
 Accordingly, the maximum possible area ratio is

 The maximum possible reduction is:

 
=

The value above is often used as the theoretical

maximum reduction possible in a single draw, even
though it ignores:
(1) the effects of friction and redundant work,
which would reduce the maximum possible
value,
(2) strain hardening, which would increase
the maximum possible reduction because the
exiting wire would be stronger than the
starting metal.

 In practice, draw reductions per pass are quite below

the theoretical limit.
 Reductions of 0.50 for single-draft bar drawing and
0.30 for multiple-draft wire drawing seem to be the
upper limits in industrial operations.
Wire Drawing Practice
 Wire drawing involves stock that can be easily coiled
and subjected to sequential or tandem drawing
operations with as many as a dozen or more draws
occurring with a given drawing machine.
 Each drawing operation or “pass” will involve delivery
of the wire to the die from a coil on capstan OR drum,
passage through the die, and take-up on a capstan that
pulls the wire through the die
 Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple
draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated by
accumulating drums
 Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw
wire stock through upstream die
 Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total
reduction is achieved by the series of dies.

Fine wire drawing typically refers to round wire with a

diameter of less than 0.1 mm.

Ultra fine wire drawing typically refers to round wire as

fine as 0.0025 mm in diameter.
 Annealing before each drawing operation permits large
area reduction.
 Due to strain hardening, intermediate annealing
between passes is necessary in cold drawing in order to
maintain sufficient ductility to the material and avoid
failure.
•
•Tungsten Carbide dies are used to for drawing
hard wires, and diamond dies is the choice for
fine wires.
Bar Drawing
 Bar drawing usually involves stock that is too large in
cross section, and hence must be drawn straight.
 Round bar stock may be 1 to 10 cm in diameter and
even larger.
 Accomplished as a single-draft operation -the stock is
pulled through one die opening
 Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight
cylinder
 The reduction in area is usually restricted to 20 to 50%,
because greater reductions would exceed the tensile
strength of the material, depending on its ductility.
 intermediate anneals may be required
 To achieve a certain size or shape multiple passes
through progressively smaller dies or intermediate
anneals may be required
 Tube Drawing
 Tubes are produced by extrusion or other process (such
as shape rolling)
 Also tubes can be reduced in thickness or diameter by
tube drawing.
 The shape of tubes can be changed by using dies and
mandrels with various profiles
o Tube drawing is also similar to wire drawing, except
that a mandrel of appropriate diameter is required to
form the internal hole.
o Here three arrangements are shown in figure (a) with a
floating plug
(b) fixed plug drawing
(c) with a moving mandrel
 Preparation of the Work
 Three steps include: (1) annealing, (2) cleaning, and
(3) pointing.
 The purpose of annealing is to increase the ductility
of the stock to accept deformation during drawing.
 Cleaning of the stock is required to prevent damage
of the work surface and draw die. It involves removal
of surface contaminants (e.g., scale and rust) by
means of chemical pickling or shot blasting.
 Pointing involves the reduction in diameter of the
starting end of the stock so that it can be inserted
through the draw die to start the process by swaging,
rolling, or turning.
 Lubrication in Wire Drawing
 Proper lubrication is important in drawing operations.
The basic methods of lubrication used in wire drawing
are:
Dry drawing :
 In dry drawing, the surface of the wire is coated with
various lubricants, depending on the strength and
frictional characteristics of the material.
 The rod to be drawn is first surface treated by pickling,
which removes the surface scale that could lead to
surface defects and considerably reduce die life
(because of it’s abrasiveness).
 The bar then goes through a box (stuffing box) filled
with soap powder to coat it
Pickling
 This is a metal surface treatment used to remove
impurities,contaminants,rust or scale from ferrous
metals, copper, and aluminum alloys.
 A solution called pickle liquor, which contains strong
acids, is used to remove the surface impurities. It is
commonly used to descale or clean steel in various
steelmaking processes

Wet drawing
 Here, the dies and rod are completely immersed in a
lubricant. Typical lubricants include oils and emulsion
(containing fatty or chlorinated additives) and various
chemical compounds.
 Metal coating
 for high -strength materials, such as steels, stainless
steels, and high-temperature alloys, the surface of the
rod may be coated with a softer metal or with
conversion coating.
 Conversion coatings may consists of sulfate oxalate
coatings on the rod, which typically are then coated
with soap, as a lubricant.
 Copper or tin can be chemically deposited as a thin
layer on surface of the metal, whereby it acts as a
solid lubricant
 Polymers may also be used as solid lubricants, such as
in drawing titanium
 Features of a Draw Die
Entry region -funnels lubricant into the die to prevent
scoring of work and die

Approach -cone-shaped region where drawing occurs

Bearing surface (land) -determines final stock size. The
purpose of the land is to size, that is, to set the final
diameter of the product

Back relief -exit zone –if the exit of die bearing has a
sharp edge, this can shave the wire. This will produce
metal particles, dust or fines, which will (1)Pollute
drawing lubricant (2)Block the entrance of the next die
Back relief
The friction against sharp edge also imparts vibration to
the wire, which can be transmitted through the machine.
The negative results of this are:
Abnormal wear of the die
Poor wire quality
Numerous wire breaks
The negative results of this are:
 Abnormal wear of the die
 Poor wire quality
 Numerous wire breaks

To avoid this sharp edge, it is necessary to produce a well

smooth transition zone between the bearing and the exit
zone
 Die materials
 Die materials for drawing are generally alloy tool steels,
carbides, or diamond.
 For drawing fine wires the die may be diamond, either a
single crystal or a polycrystalline diamond.
 Carbide and diamond dies are made as inserts or nibs,
which are then supported in a steel casting as shown:
 Die Wear
 A typical wear pattern on a drawing die is shown
below.
 The die wear is highest at the entry. Although the
pressure is highest in this region and may be partially
reasonable for wear of die.
 Other factors that are involved in wearing of die
include:
(1) Variations in the diameter of the entering wire.
(2) Vibration, which subjects the die-entry contact
zone to fluctuating stresses
(3) The presence of abrasive scale on the surface of
entering wire.
 Wire Drawing Equipment
o Drawing equipment can be of several designs. These
designs can be classified into two basic types; Draw
bench, and Bull block:

 A draw bench : A draw bench uses a single die and the

pulling force is supplied by a chain drive or by
hydraulic means.
 Draw bench is used for single length drawing of rod or
tube with diameter greater than 20mm (may be 1 to 10
cm in diameter and even larger).Length can be as much
as 30 m.
 Similar to a long horizontal tensile testing machine but
with hydraulic or chain-drive mechanism.
Draw Bench
 It is used for single draws of straight rods with large
cross sections and for tubes with length up to 30m.

Bull block :
 Smaller cross sections are usually drawn by a bull
block, which is basically a rotating drum around
which wire is wrapped.
 The tension in the setup provides the force required to
draw the wire
Bull Block
 Drawing Defects
 Defects in drawing are similar to those observed in
extrusion especially center cracking.

The factors influencing center cracking are:

 The tendency for cracking increase with increasing die
angle.
 Decreasing reduction per pass.
 Friction
 The presence of inclusions in the material.
 A type of surface defect in drawing is the formation of
seams.
 These are longitudinal scratches or folds in the material
which can open up during subsequent forming
operation, such as by upsetting, heading, thread rolling,
or by bending of the wire or rod.

Residual stress in drawing operation

 Because of inhomogeneous deformation that the
material undergoes, a cold drawn rod, wire, or tube
usually contains residual stresses.
 Typically a wide range of residual stresses can be
present within the rod in three principles directions :
(i) Transverse
direction
(ii) Longitudinal
direction.
(iii) Radial direction.
 For very light reductions, the surface residual stresses
are compressive.
 Note that light reductions are equivalent to shot peening
or surface rolling which induce compressive residual
stresses on surface, thus improving fatigue life.

 Residual stress can be significant in stress application

causing cracking or in warping of the component when
a layer is subsequently removed, as by machining or
grinding
 
Example.

Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle=.

Starting diameter is 2.5 mm and
final diameter is 2.0 mm. The coefficient of friction at the
work–die interface is 0.07. The
metal has a strength coefficient K = 205 MPa and a strain-
hardening exponent n = 0.20.

Determine the draw stress and draw force in this

operation.
Solution:
 Determine values of D and Lc f
 
=

 
=

 Determine Φ
 
= 0.88 1.16

 Determine areas before (Ao) and after drawing

(Af):
 
Ao = 4.91Af= 3.14
 
Determine

 Determine

 
= =

   Determine draw stress

 

= 145.4 x x 1.16 x 0.447

= 94.1 MPa
 Determine drawing force F

 
x = 94.1 x
 End

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