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Communication Basics
 Communication deals with the principle of
transferring information from one place to
another.
 It involves transmission and reception, and
processing of information between these two
locations.
 The source could be in continuous form as in the case
of analog communication and as discrete signals as
in the case of digital communication.
 Short distance transmission of information is called
baseband transmission
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 Communication Basics

 For long distance transmission, information has to be

impressed upon an high frequency component to be
able to reach the reception end of communication.
 The high frequency component is termed as a carrier
and the entire process is called modulation.

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 Need For Modulation
 To translate the frequency of a low-pass signal to a higher
band so that the spectrum of the transmitted bandpass signal
matches the bandpass characteristics of the channel.
 For efficient transmission, it has been found that the antenna
dimension has to be of the same order of magnitude as the
wavelength of the signal being transmitted.
 Since C= f for a typical low-frequency signal of 2 kHz, the
wavelength works out to be 150 km. Even assuming the
height of the Antenna half the wavelength, the height works
out to be 75 km, which is impracticable.

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 Need For Modulation

 To enable transmission of a signal from

several message sources simultaneously
through a single channel employing
frequency division multiplexing.
 To improve noise and interference immunity
in transmission over a noise channel by
expanding the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal.
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 Frequency Translation
 The modulation process shifts the
modulating frequency to a higher
frequency, which in turn depends on the
carrier frequency, thus producing upper
and lower sidebands.
 Hence, signals are upconverted from low
frequencies to high frequencies and
downconverted from high frequencies to low
frequencies in the receiver.
 The process of converting a frequency or a
band of frequencies to another location in
the frequency spectrum is called frequency
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 Types Of Modulation
Depending on whether the amplitude, frequency, or phase of
the carrier is varied in accordance with the modulation signal,
we classify the modulation as

 Amplitude modulation
 Frequency modulation
 Phase modulation.

The method of converting information into pulse form and

then transmitting it over a long distance is called pulse
modulation.
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 Transmitte
 The message as
r
it arrives may not be suitable for direct
transmission. It may be voice signal, music, picture, or data. The
signals, which are not of electrical nature, have to be converted
into electrical signals. This is the role of transmitter. Typical block
diagram is illustrated below.

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 Receive

r
A receiver is meant to receive the electromagnetic signal which
carries the information. It is tuned to receive the required
information at a predetermined frequency. The output of the
receiver is usually fed into a transducer which converts the
information into understandable signal.

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 Multiplexing
 When it is required to transmit more signals on the same channel,
baseband transmission fails, as in the case of audio signals being
broadcast from different stations on the same channel.
 To encounter this problem either frequency division multiplexing
or time division multiplexing is employed.
 This method of transmitting several channels simultaneously is
known as frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
 In Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) several signals are
transmitted over a time interval. Each signal is allotted a time slot
and it gets repeated cyclically. The only difference compared to
FDM is that the signals are to be sampled before sending.

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 Signals

Signals:
 Any function that carries information.
 Shows how a parameter varies with another
parameter.
 Will be dealing with signals with time or frequency as
an independent variable

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 Signals

Signals are classified as:

 Continuous and discrete.

 Causal and Non causal.
 Even and Odd.
 Deterministic and Random
 Real and complex
 Energy and power type
Discrete Signals

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Continuous Signals

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Causal Signals

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Even & Odd Signals

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Special Signals
sin
sin c(t) ,
  t 
t

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Signum Signals

Sgn(t) = 1, t>0
= -1, t<0

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 Impulse or Delta signal

  (t) 1


and  v(t) (t)dt 
v(t)


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Amplitude Modulation

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 Amplitude Modulation

 Amplitude of the carrier is changed in proportion to the

instantaneous amplitude of a message signal
 Carrier frequency must be relatively higher than the
message frequency
 Modulation index ‘m’ is the ratio of Em/Ec
 Percentage of modulation = m x 100%

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AM Envelope

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Frequency Spectrum Of AM Wave

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Power Spectrum Of AM

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 Other AM Systems

 Suppressed Carrier Systems

 Double side band (DSB) system
 Single side band system(SSB)
 SSB with pilot carrier
 Independent side band (ISB) system
 Vestigial side band (VSB) system

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AM Waveforms For AM, DSB & SSB

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 Single Sideband

Advantages:
 Lesser power consumption.
 Conservation of bandwidth.
 Noise reduction.
 Less fading.
Disadvantages:
 Requires complex receiver.
 At the receiver, coherent carrier has to be generated.
 In case of pilot carrier, at the receiver end it has to be boosted
properly.

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 AM Modulators

 Square law Modulators

 Switching Modulators
 Transistor Modulators
 Low level
 Medium level
 High level

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 Types Of Modulators

Balanced Modulators
1. Balanced ring Modulator
2. Balanced bridge Modulator
3. Transistor balanced Modulator
4. FET balanced Modulator

SSB Generation
5. The filter method
6. The phase shift method
7. The Third method

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 Demodulators, Distortions &
Reception
AM Demodulators
1. Rectifier detector
2. Envelope detector
Detector Distortions
3. Diagonal peak clipping
4. Negative peak clipping
SSB Reception
5. Coherent detection
6. Reception with pilot carrier

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 AM Transmitters
Low Level AM DSBFC Transmitter

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High Level DSBFC Transmitter

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 SSB Transmitter

SSB suppressed carrier Transmitter: BPF is used to remove the other

sideband

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Phase Shift Method

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SSB Transmitter With Pilot
Carrier

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 AM Receiver

Super Heterodyne Receiver

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SSB Pilot Receiver

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Communication Receiver

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 Receiver Parameters

 Selectivity
 Sensitivity
 Dynamic range
 Fidelity
 Bandwidth
 Noise temperature and equivalent
noise temperature

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FM & PM Waves

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 FM Detectors

 Slope detector
 Balance slope detector
 Foster Seeley discriminator
 Ratio detector
 Demodulator using PLL
 Quadrature detector
 Zero crossing detector

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 FM Transmitter
 Crosby Direct FM Transmitter:

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Indirect FM
Transmitter

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 FM Receivers
Super heterodyne Receiver

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Double Superheterodyne Receiver

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 Phased Lock Loop
 It is a feedback system that generates a signal that
has a fixed relation to the phase of a reference signal .
 A phase locked loop circuit responds to both the
frequency and phase of the input signals, by changing the
frequency of the voltage controlled oscillator until it
matches to the reference input in both frequency and
phase. Hence it is a negative feedback system except that
the feedback error signal is a phase rather than a current
or voltage signal as usually the case in conventional
feedback system.

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PLL Block Diagram (Digital)

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 PLL Applications

 Data and Tape Synchronization

 Modems
 FSK Modulation
 FM Demodulation
 Frequency Synthesizer
 Tone Decoding
 Frequency Multiplication and Division

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 Direct Digital Synthesis

 Is a powerful technique to generate RF signals.

 A direct digital synthesizer operates by storing
the points of a waveform in digital format, and
then recalling them to generate the waveform.
 The rate at which the synthesizer completes one
waveform then determines the frequency.

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 Direct Digital Synthesis
Block Diagram :

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Pulse Modulation

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 Pulse Modulation

 In analog pulse modulation, the carrier is a

periodic pulse train
 The amplitude, position and width of the carrier
pulse train are varied in a continuous manner in
accordance with the corresponding sample value of
message signal.
 Thus in Pulse modulation, information is
transmitted basically in analog form, but the
transmission takes place at discrete times.

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 In the case of digital pulse modulation the message
signal is represented in a form that is discrete in both time
and amplitude
 The data is transmitted as a sequence of coded pulse.
 This type of modulation is also called pulse
code modulation (PCM).
 PCM is the most widely used form in the field
of Telecommunication.
 Digital Data transmission provides a higher level of
noise immunity, more flexibility in the band width
 Power tradeoff possibility of providing more security
to data and ease of implementation using large scale
integrated circuits.

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 Predominant Methods Of Pulse
Modulation

 Pulse width modulation (PWM)

 Pulse position modulation (PPM)
 Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
 Pulse code modulation (PCM)

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Pulse Width Modulation

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation

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Pulse Modulation Technique

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 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 PCM offers a method of over coming some of the
disadvantages of other type of pulse modulation.
 In PCM the instantaneous amplitude of the sample is
represented by a binary code resulting in a series of ones and
zeros or mark and space.
 All pulses have the same height and same shape
 Since only ones and zeros are sent. The receiver has only
to detect the presence or absence of a pulse.
 A distorted pulse does not degrade the signal as long as the
pulse can still be recognized. Hence PCM is less sensitive to noise
than wither PAM or PWM

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PCM Transmitter & Receiver

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 Multiplexing
 When more than one application or connection share
the capacity of one link it is called multiplexing.
 This results in better utilization of resources.
 A typical example is, many conversations over
telephone line, trunk line, wireless channel, etc.
 A few examples of multiplexing are:
 TDM- Time division multiplexing
 FDM- Frequency division multiplexing
 WDM- Wavelength division multiplexing
 CDMA- Code division multiple access

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FDM Transmitter

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FDM Receiver

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Synchronous TDM Transmitter

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Synchronous TDM Receiver

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Analog Carrier System Using FDM

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Digital Carrier System Using TDM

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THANK YOU

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