INTRODUCTION TO

CRIMINOLOGY
Session 8
Economic inequality and crimeControl theories

___________________________
Dr Peter Stiernstedt, CPP, CISM
Lecturer in Criminology
University of West London
T: 020 8231 2998
1 E: peter.stiernstedt@uwl.ac.uk
Twitter: @omniumrerum
 Lecture 8 overview

Economic inequality
and crime Control theories

Poverty and crime Types of crime prevention

Unemployment Early social control theories

“Underclass” Later social control theories

The role of the family More social control theories

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Economic inequality and
crime
Lecture 8
Part 1

3
 Introduction
 Indicators tend to confirm that the majority of convicted

offenders come from lower-class backgrounds (Coleman and

Moynihan 1996).

 Studies have found that convicted offenders tend to live in the

most economically deprived areas (Coleman and Moynihan

1996).

 The evidence suggests that it is largely intra-class, with

offenders and victims being drawn largely from the same

social groups (Lea and Young 41993; Coleman and Moynihan
 What is poverty?

Absolute Relative
 lacking basic necessities lacking those things in a

for subsistence e.g. food, society regarded as the

water, clothing and minimum requirement for a
shelter normal life

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 What is poverty in the UK?

 The official poverty line in the UK is where a household income is

below 60% of the UK's median household income (known as

Households Below Average Income- HBAI), with the poverty line

adjusted for family size.

 However whilst some researchers define poverty in terms of income,

others do so in terms of lack of access to social necessities such as a

phone (mobile or landline).

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 Mean and median

Mean Median

Also known as the average. The median is the middle

The mean is found by adding number. First you arrange the

up all of the given data and numbers in order from lowest

dividing by the number of to highest, then you find the

data entries. middle number by crossing

off the numbers until you
7 reach the middle.
 Poverty in the UK in figures

 The presence of large numbers of individuals with relatively

high incomes results in a skewed or non-symmetric

distribution. As a result, the median income (£494 per week) is
the standard measure of average income as changes in the
mean can be driven by extreme values.

 There are a large number of individuals with household

incomes around the 60% of median

8
income mark (£296 per
Absolute and relative poverty

Which do you think is more relevant to crime?

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 Poverty and Crime

 Correlations between poverty and crime go back to at least the

nineteenth century (e.g. Frégier 1840; Mayhew 1862)

 If crime is caused by poverty then one would expect to see more crime

where poor people reside and at times of rising levels of poverty.

 Studies have been carried-out comparing times of economic

depression and prosperity to see if this has an impact on crime rates.

 Also comparisons have been made between wealthier and poorer areas

of a country to see if there is a significant difference in crime rates

between the two.
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 Correlation?

 Numerous studies have attempted to find whether a relationship exists

between crime and the business cycle (Sellin 1935; Hale 1998; Vold et
al. 2002).

 The rationale behind these studies is the expectation that crime rates

would go up during periods of economic downturns because of the

increase in poor people during these times.

 However many studies conclude that crime does not increase during a

recession or depression and some have even found that crime

decreases during an economic downturn (Blumstein & Wallman
11
2000).
 However…

 Ehrlich (1974) found a positive relationship between property crime

rates for 1940, 1950 and 1960 and the percentage of households in
receipt of less than half the median income.

 Loftin and Hill (1974) found a strong correlation between their

index of structural poverty (i.e. measures of infant mortality, low

education, one-parent families, low income) and homicide rates.

 A subsequent study by Smith and Parker (1980) found that the index

of structural poverty is strongly correlated with homicides between

family and friends but not between strangers.
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 Unemployment – Crime

 Wells (1995) found a relationship between youth crime and unemployment with

higher rates for burglary among men under 25 during periods of unemployment.

 Naffine and Gale (1989) suggest that there is a stronger relationship for men which

indicate that unemployment has a different impact on males than females.

 A major Home Office study carried out by Field (1990) concluded that

unemployment did not have a separate effect on crime rates.

 The study showed that there was a stronger relationship between crime and personal

consumption i.e. the more people have to spend-the lower the crime rate.

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 Inconsistent

 Much of the research on crime and poverty is

inconsistent and contradictory in their conclusions

(Vold et al. 2002).
 The statistical evidence linking unemployment and

crime has been inconsistent (Box 1987; Pyle &

Deadman 1994).

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 However…

 Box and Hale (1986) found a strong relationship between unemployment and

imprisonment.

 A variety of factors may be involved. For example the police may target the unemployed,

who are more likely to be on the streets. They may perceive the young unemployed as

likely offenders. Areas characterised by high unemployment may also be seen as

‘problem’ areas.

 Wells (1995) argues that there is a strong relationship between unemployment

and property crime pointing out that the areas with highest unemployment in

England and Wales are also areas with the highest crime rates.

 However any association between changes in the labour market and different kinds of

crime must be interpreted by exploring how

15 people are affected by changes.
 Complicated relationship

Any relationship between crime, unemployment and economic cycles at a statistical level poses

methodological problems.

1. There are limitations with criminal statistics, with serious problems regarding their accuracy.

For example crime statistics are a ‘construction’ in which official statistics do not include all

offences that occur, as they need to be reported to, and subsequently recorded by the police.

2. Unemployment statistics are ‘constructed’ and are difficult to interpret.

3. Unemployment is subject to many different and changing definitions and figures (like crime

statistics) and are widely recognized as underestimates.

4. The argument for a unemployment-crime connection is based on the notion that a fall in real

wages coupled with a diminished chance of finding legitimate employment makes

illegitimate ‘employment’ appear more attractive.

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 Underclass

 The term ‘underclass’ has been used in different ways.

 In the United States it has been used in connection with areas in cities like Los Angeles,

with high rates of gang warfare, drug offences, violence and property crime.

 The ‘underclass’ consisting of the most disadvantaged members of society, a

consequence of de-industrialization and a reduction in the value of welfare benefits.

Three key features of the ‘underclass’ (Murray, 1989)

1. Illegitimacy

2. Violent crime

3. Unemployment

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 The return of Murray

 Murray returned to Britain in 1993 and 1999 to review the situation and found the situation to

be worse.

 Illegitimacy by 1999 had risen to 38% of births.

 Violent crime had risen by over one-third between 1989 to 1999.

 Unemployment in 18-24 year old men increased from 20.5% in 1989 to 31.2% in 1999.

 Murray argues that a solution to the problem was for the local community to take

responsibility for education, housing and criminal justice, this way the community can ensure

that the problems are tackled.

 He also believes that the benefits system needs to be changed to get rid of the disincentives to

marriage and also to discourage single parenthood.

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 Criticism of Murray

1. Brown and Madge (1982) demonstrated that at least 50% of individuals born into a

disadvantaged home did not themselves find themselves disadvantaged by the age of

twenty-three.

2. Walker (1990) argues that the ‘best’ evidence does not support the existence of an

underclass and that approximately 60% of illegitimate births to women under the age of

20 were registered by both parents.

3. Brown (1990) quotes figures which demonstrate that divorced single mothers spend

longer claiming benefits than never-married single mothers

4. Alcock (1996) is critical of Murray’s sweeping generalizations which imply that two-

parent families do not produce poorly socialized children or conversely that single-

parents do not produce well-socialised children.

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 Making a murderer
In 1985, when he was 23 years old and raising several
young kids with his new wife Lori, Avery went to prison
for raping a local woman, Penny Ann Beernsten. In 2003,
after he had served 18 years of his sentence, DNA
evidence exonerated him of the crime. It turned out that
DNA pointed to another man, who may have been a
suspect when the rape initially was being investigated but
who police didn’t fully pursue. The Wisconsin Innocence
Project, which had helped Avery turn over his case,
trumpeted its success, and Avery prepared a multimillion-
dollar lawsuit against Manitowoc County, Wisconsin.

Steven Avery from Making a Murderer. Seems like a happy ending.

Except while this was going on, in 2005, a 25-year-old woman named Teresa Halbach
disappeared. She’d been last seen visiting Avery. After human remains, Halbach’s car, and
other evidence were found on the Avery family salvage lot, Avery was charged with murder.
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Control theories
Lecture 8
Part 2

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 What do we know about crime so far?

Theory Key Points Application

Classicism Choice; pleasure/pain principle; puts Deterrence in CJS; changes

blame on individual to environment

Biological Biological/genetic defect; measures Medication, treatment and/or

Positivism individual differences therapy for offenders

Psychological Underlying psychological/ Therapy; counselling

Positivism personality disorder

Sociological Relationship between individual and Social housing; schooling;

Positivism environment; social facts22 healthcare; welfare state
 Types of crime prevention

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Manipulation of Identification and intervention of those Dealing with reoffending

the environment ‘at risk’

Rational Choice Biological and psychological Targets known offenders, victims

Theory – Cornish interventions or places that are part of the
and Clarke (1986) crime pattern (Crawford, 2007,
p.870).

Routine Activity Introduction of the ‘welfare state’ Community youth courts

Theory – Cohen Prisons - temporary protection
and Felson (1979) 23 for citizens
 Starting point – Control theory

 Control theorists claim that the issue for criminologists should not

be about why people break the rules

 Crime and deviance is ‘normal’

 Crime and deviance is predictable where social and personal controls

are inadequate

 Key question is: Why individuals do not break the law?

 Where criminality does arise:

 Less do with personality (or genetics)

 More to do with the social bonds – or lack of them

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 Early formulation of social control

“Delinquency results when there is a relative absence of

internalised norms and rules governing behaviour in conformity
with the norms of the social system to which legal penalties are
attached, a breakdown in previously established controls and/or a
relative absence of or conflict in social rules or techniques for
enforcing such behaviour in the social groups or institutions of
which the person is a member.” (Reiss, 1951 p. 196).
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 Social control theories

 Social control: Any action on the part of others, deliberate

or not, that facilitates conformity to social rules.

 Social control may be direct, formal, and coercive, but indirect

and informal social control is preferable because it produces

prosocial behaviour regardless of the presence or absence of
external coercion.
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 Four types of social control

Type Description (Nye, 1958)

Direct Based on the threat of punishment and the rewards for compliance to
societal norms.

Indirect Based on affectional attachments to people.

Internalised Based on the development of the individual’s personality, self-concept

or conscience.

Alternative Based on not needing to offend because all an individual’s needs are
being met through alternative
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means of needs satisfaction.
 The chicken

The chicken stealing corn from his neighbour knows

nothing of the moral laws; he does not want to violate
rules; he wants merely to eat corn… No motivation to
deviance is required to explain his acts.
So, too, no special motivation to commit
crime within the human animal was
required to explain his criminal act.”
(Hirschi, 1969 p. 31) 28
 Social control theories

1. Containment Theory

2. Neutralization Theory

3. Drift Theory

4. Social Bond Theory

5. Self-control Theory (general Theory of Crime)

6. Control-balance Theory

7. Labelling Theory
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 1. Containment Theory

Containment Theory is an early control that sought answers to why it is that

some people in similar environments are immune to criminal temptations and
others are not.
 Those of us who resist antisocial temptations are contained by two

overlapping forms of containment: outer and inner.

 Outer containment is the social pressure on individuals brought to bear

by the family and other important individuals and groups to abide by

community rules.

 Inner containment relies heavily on how persons see themselves — their

self-concept. 30
(Reckless, 1967)
 2. Neutralization Theory

 Neutralisation techniques are used to

Denial
Denialof
of
responsibility
responsibility justify and legitimise deviant activity

 Neutralization theory is the idea that

Appeal
Appealto to
Denial
Denialofof
higher
higher people who violate the law learn to
injury
injury
loyalties
loyalties
neutralize the orthodox attitudes and

(Sykes
(Sykes&&Matza,
Matza, values of society, allowing them to
1964)
1964)
drift between outlaw and orthodox
behaviour.
Condemnation
Condemnation Denial
Denialofof
of
ofcondemners
condemners victim
victim  Neutralization theory says nothing
about the origins of the antisocial
behaviour the actors seek to
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neutralize.
 3. Drift Theory

 Drift is the motion in and out of delinquency, moving from orthodox and

criminal values. Neutralization techniques allow the person to occasionally

‘drift’ out of orthodox behaviour and get into criminal behaviours.

 The idea of drift is to capture situations where controls have loosened,

making it easier for the person to be influenced by social forces and thus
drift in and out of delinquency.

 Delinquents are affected by their environment and are prone to conformity.

Interestingly enough, many delinquents are often involved in their

community and attend the same social functions as law abiding citizens.
For example, many will still attend church even though they rob drug
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stores or deal drugs. (Sykes & Matza, 1964)
 4. Social Bonding Theory

• Why do individuals conform? Type Description (Hirschi, 1969)

• Because social (and material) bonds Attachment Emotional component of

conformity.
generate individual links to society
Commitment Rational component of conformity.
(and family) Resource investment in pursuit of
• Individuals have a perception of the lawfulness and the rewards reaped
thereof
‘conventional order’
• Conventional order dictates that Involvement A direct consequence of
commitment – time and resource
individual behaviours have a ‘cost’ investment

(social and material)

Belief In the value of law abiding
• A cost-benefit analysis of behaviour and the acceptance of the
social norms regulating conduct.
conformity can therefore be derived
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 5. General theory of crime

 Self-control: The extent to which different people are vulnerable to the

temptations of the moment.

 established in early childhood, it tends to persist throughout life,

 is the default outcome that occurs in the absence of adequate socialization (parenting)

 is considered a stable component of a criminal personality.

 Following an unrestrained path to pleasure often leads to crime.

 A criminal opportunity is a situation that presents itself to an offender by

which he or she can immediately satisfy needs with minimal mental or

physical effort.

 Many crimes are spontaneous acts requiring little skill and earn the
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criminal minimal, short term, satisfaction. (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990)
 6. Control-balance theory

“The central premise of the theory is that the amount of control to which people
are subject relative to the amount of control they can exercise affects their
general probability of committing some deviant acts as well as the probability
that they will commit specific types of deviance.” (Tittle, 1995 p.142)
 An ‘integrated theory’ – combining several theoretical approaches (Control,

rational choice, routine activities, differential association, strain, labelling

theory).
 Control ratio - the balance between exercise of control and being subject to

control where balance = conformity,

and imbalance = deviance.

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 7. Labelling theory

 What makes an act criminal is not the harm it incurs but rather

whether this label is conferred on the act by the state

 It is the nature (and reaction) of society that determines

whether a crime has occurred

 Labeling theorists argues that criminologists can not afford to

neglect the nature and effects of societal reaction, particularly

when the state is the labeling agent
 Rather than diminishing criminal involvement, state

intervention (applying a label) has the opposite effect

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Thank you for listening!

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