INTRODUCTION TO

CRIMINOLOGY
Seminar 3

___________________________
Dr Peter Stiernstedt, CPP, CISM
Lecturer in Criminology
University of West London
T: 020 8231 2998
1 E: peter.stiernstedt@uwl.ac.uk
Twitter: @omniumrerum
 Article 1

Harvard reference

1. What is the article about?

2. What is the big idea/original contribution?
3. What are the strengths of the article?
4. What are the weaknesses of the article?
5. Provide a reference to another article citing this one.
Number of words for article 1: 500 +/- 10%

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 Use the template!  Write an essay or in essay

 Answer each question as format!

short as possible but as long  Do something that is

as necessary! completely removed from

what we have discussed here!
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 Harvard reference

Agnew, R. (2001) ‘Building on the foundation

of General Strain Theory: Specifying the types
of strain most likely to lead to crime and
delinquency.’, Journal of research in crime
and delinquency, 38(4), pp. 319-361.
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 1. What is the article about?

The article is about the types of strain events that are most
likely to lead to crime and delinquency, based on Robert
Agnew’s General Strain Theory. It describes the types of
strain related to crime, which the previous article excluded,
as well as the types of strain not related to crime, that were
the main interest in Agnew’s last article.

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 1. What is the article about?

This article has four mains ideas. Firstly, it provides the

following specific definition of strain. Secondly, establish
what strains are likely to inform criminality. The next one
explains the characteristics of those types of strain and the
last one describes the consequence of these characteristics.

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 1. What is the article about?

This article has four mains ideas. Firstly, it provides

the following specific definition of strain. Secondly,
establish what strains are likely to inform criminality.
The next one explains the characteristics of those
types of strain and the last one describes the
consequence of these characteristics.
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 1. What is the article about?

This article builds on General Strain Theory in several ways. It points to new
categories of strain and describes the characteristics of strainful events and
conditions that influence their relationship to crime. The article is split up into
sections: the first section defines strain theory, the second section reviews
previous tests of General Strain Theory, the third section describes the four
characteristics of strain most likely to lead to crime, the fourth section uses the
characteristic to predict the likelihood that these types of strain lead to crime
and the fifth section gives suggestiond for empirical research.

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 1. What is the article about?

In this article, it builds on Agnew’s General Strain Theory and

discusses which type of strain is more like to result to an
individual committing crime. These types of strain are stated as (1)
unjust, (2) high in magnitude, (3) associated with low social
control and (4) create pressure or incentive to engage in criminal
coping. The article also discusses the types of strain that may not
result to crime.

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 1. What is the article about?

The article is a further development of Agnew’s General Strain

Theory which attempts to strengthen it by exploring how
researchers may attempt to measure the impact of strain and
differentiate which types of strain are more susceptible to crime
than others. The focus is on outlining some key criteria by which
to measure the impact of certain strains and to estimate the
likelihood of it leading to crime.

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 2. What is the big idea/original
contribution?

The primary contribution by Agnew is that “some strains are more

likely than others to result in crime” (2001, p.353). This means
that, having built on the foundation ideas of General Strain
Theory, the article continuously reviews these ideas throughout
whilst introducing new ways in which to study it.

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 2. What is the big idea/original
contribution?

This article aims to specify the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. At the beginning
the definition of strain is presented as an ‘objective event or condition’ (Agnew, 2001), also concerning the
individual’s consideration of that event or condition and the following emotional reaction to it. Afterwards
the article reviews some tests made on GST, helping to explain some contradictory aspects about them and
determining the actual types of strains that relate to crime such as verbal or physical assault, parental
rejection, poor school performance, and work problems. The characteristics of these types of strain are later
described and the reasons why they lead to crime are explained; in particular they relate to crime whether
they are (1) seen as unjust, (2) seen as high in magnitude, (3) associated with low social control, and (4)
create some pressure to engage in criminal coping. Finally, the author addresses to researchers and provides
the basis for future studies such as the relative impact of these strains on crime, the types of strains that are
more strongly related to crime, and the distinction of strain from social control and social learning..

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 2. What is the big idea/original
contribution?

The article focuses to describe the types of strain that are more likely to lead to crime and
delinquency. First, Strain is the social environmental negative factor that prevents an
individual from reaching their goal. Second, results from previous General Strain Theory
tests decide which categorised types of strain are more likely to lead to crime and
delinquency. Third, characteristics of those types of strain are being detailed, (1) when
they are seen unjust, (2) are seen as of great importance, (3) are related with low social
control, and (4) generate some pressure to the rest to lead an individual to commit crime.
Fourth, different people with different personality traits and with different types of strain,
are being tested to predict criminal actions. (and several types of strain will still result in
crime). Fifth,
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 2. What is the big idea/original
contribution?

The article focuses and builds upon the traditional strain theory as well as discussing
other new sources of strain, the main three being; the actual or anticipated failure to
achieve positively valued goals, the actual or anticipated removal of positively values
stimuli and the actual or anticipated presentation of negative stimuli. A majority of
stain theories focus talk about strain “as the failure to achieve positively valued
goals” whilst this general strain theory by Agnew directs the strain theory in a new
direction to also include negative relations between individuals and others. The
general strain theory also states that adversity can also have a cumulative impact on
individuals and can lead to them not behaving in a one would if the instance was
their first and not one, they experienced shortly after another instance of adversity.
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 2. What is the big idea/original
contribution?

The big idea/ original contribution of this article consists on five factors.
First, defining strain: Strain is the social and environmental of negative factors that prevent an
individual from achieving their desired goals.
Second, previous tests taken into consideration are Agnew and White (1992), Paternoster and
Mazerolle (1994), Aseltine et al. (2000), Agnew and Brezina (1997) and Piquero and Sealock
(2000).
Third, the characteristics of types of strain likely to lead to crime is when they are unjust, in most
cases with unjust comes the feeling of anger which fosters crime, reduces the actual and perceived
costs of crime and motivates the individual for action.
Seen as high magnitude, has an impact on the ability to not act in a noncriminal manner.
Associated with low social control, parental discipline (low direct control), parental rejection (low
attachment), labour market (low commitment) or homelessness
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(low at most of the above factors)
 2. What is the big idea/original
contribution?

Lastly, create pressure which consists of being surrounded by people committing a

crime, reinforce crime and individuals presenting favourable beliefs to crime (e.g.,
child abuse, bullying)
Fourth, characteristics that are used to predict the likelihood of several strains and
whether they will result into crime are the objective strain and subjective strain.
Objective strain occurs when the individual is experiencing an event or condition
that is usually disliked by members of their environment (physical assault) and
subjective strain involves the individuals experiencing these events or conditions.
Fifth, empirical research consists of the research done before this article (2001)
which has been considered for the making
16 of new research.
 3. What are the strengths of the
article?

Agnew’s article presents several strengths – firstly, it includes a large number of

academic references that provide a strong foundation and evidence of research. These
references feature not only reliable researchers of criminology, but they also draw
from other disciplines as well which makes the contents of the article more robust
and well-considered. Furthermore, it has not only been previously peer-reviewed, but
also updated to correct the criticisms it has received prior, which suggests that it has
become more reliable and critical. Lastly, its focus this time is only on the General
Strain Theory and differentiates it from the other approaches in order to provide a
much more detailed and in-depth explanation into the phenomenon.

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 3. What are the strengths of the
article?

The strengths of the article are that it is presenting arguments identifying and considering
all the different types of strain that should and should not be related to crime as a result it
makes its easier to limit the accuracy of GST.
For instance, two major weaknesses of the GST are that it only examined a small portion
of the strains described by Agnew (1992). Those researches were made based on existing
data sets which were collected for the GST.
To conclude, these new researches unlike past research on strain theory help us explain
why failure to achieve educational and occupational goals are often not related to crime,
whereas physical and emotional abuse usually has a strong impact and results to
delinquent act.
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 3. What are the strengths of the
article?

The main merit of this article is that it goes into detail building on the General Strain
Theory by addressing its greatest weakness of being too broad by listing specific types
of strain, and describing their characteristics and conditions under which it may
influence crime. By going into detail the article is able to argue that certain strains that
dominate thee research into strain theory are only loosely related to delinquency. On
the other hand the article also highlights certain strains that more strongly give rise to
crime, strains which have not received much previous attention, such as peer abuse. As
a consequence this article greatly expands on Agnew’s (1992) General Strain Theory
and provides a foundation and direction for future studies into the theory as a whole.

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 3. What are the strengths of the
article?

The strengths of this article include good credibility with the use of multiple
academic research to back up his arguments. In the article, it does not only
identify which type of strain is more likely to lead to crime but also identifies
which types of strain that does not lead to crime, giving a more stronger
justification on the case. Expanding upon Agnew’s General Strain Theory
(1992), identifying different approaches to improve the ability to explain and
control crime. As well as suggesting a third recommendation as part of the major
policy recommendations from General Strain Theory, “alter the characteristics of
strains in way to reduce the likelihood they will result to crime.
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3. What are the strengths of the
article?

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4. What are the weaknesses of the
article?

Even thought the article provides new information and

useful recommendations for researchers, the types of strain
are still briefly presented and in need of expansion. It also
fails to examine the intervening processes, causing difficulty
in testing the arguments provided in the article.

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4. What are the weaknesses of the
article?

The article by the time it was release, even though it was very well
written with emphasis on the subject and with some very well put
points, it did not really have any data supporting or proving that
his theories were not just theories, but they were practically
correct and based on actually tested subjects.

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4. What are the weaknesses of the
article?

Some of the research used doesn’t have solid data to pack it up.
When discussing the cumulative impact of negative relations, it
states that ‘the precise nature of the cumulative effect, however, is
unclear.’ and that there is ‘limited support for the idea that the
level of stress/strain must pass a certain threshold before negative
outcomes result’. There’s a level of uncertainty as a lot of different
variables can effect the outcome, so being able to say what
precisely caused the negative outcomes.
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 4. What are the weaknesses of the
article?

The weaknesses are that there are no actual data or testing regarding the
article and it is also outdated considering that is written in 2001. Agnew,
fails to pay attention to bigger crimes as white-collar crimes, murders,
fraud, etc. There is an important lack of examination of variations such
as age, gender, sexuality and mental illnesses. The article does not
mention at all any coping methods or how an individual that suffers
from strain can deal with it or any other ways of reducing the strain from
their daily life.
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 4. What are the weaknesses of the
article?

As the name suggests, Agnew’s attempt to cover and overcome multiple issues
using General Strain Theory makes it too broad and therefore, “virtually
unfalsifiable” (Jensen, 1995). Agnew strives to eliminate this issue by specifying
“types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency” (2001, p. 320).
However, one issue is that strain measures used by those researching General
Strain Theory “can also be taken as social control or social-learning measures”
(Agnew, 2001). This means the broadness of General Strain Theory threatens to
overlap with other strain theories such as social control theory and social-
learning theory, making it difficult to distinguish GST as a standalone theory.
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4. What are the weaknesses of the
article?

There are, however, weaknesses of this article including further

research needed in order to support the arguments presented in the
article. Suggesting that arguments presented within the article is
not, yet, proven to be effective. Similarly to the original research
on General Strain Theory, Agnew (1992), the article lacks
empiricism which links to the previous statement above.

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 4. What are the weaknesses of the
article?

Most tests of GST examine a small portion of the strains described

by Agnew(1992) and use available data sets, not related to GST,
causing many key strain measures to be missing. The article fails
to provide an explanation for the reasons why only a few types of
strain relate to crime and, in addition, it still lacks empirical data
for most of its arguments.

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 4. What are the weaknesses of the
article?

Its weaknesses include; lack of further psychological research into possible

reasons as to why someone turns to crime as a potential coping mechanism (e.g.
mental illnesses, differences in gender, people who fall outside of the societal
binaries), failure to consider more significant and severe crimes other than theft
or truancy, vague demographical and class considerations (does it narrow the
thesis down only to certain parts of the world, e.g. UK, US?/ does it only focus
on lower class individuals? If so, it doesn’t explain why someone of higher
privilege would turn to delinquency), and lack of empirical data due to lack of
further research and testing.
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 5. Provide a reference to another
article citing this one.

Hinduja, S., and Patchin, J. (2006) ‘Offline Consequences of Online

Victimization’, School Violence and Delinquency, 6(3), pp (89-112). Available
at: https:// www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1300/J202v06n03_06?
scroll=top&needAccess=true
Baron, S. (2006) ‘General strain, street youth and crime: a test of Agnew’s
revised theory’, Criminology, 42(2), pp (457-484). Available at:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/abs/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00526.x

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 5. Provide a reference to another
article citing this one.

Stephen W. Baron provides research on some specific types of

strain that were excluded from Robert Agnew’s article. General
strain, street youth and crime: A test of Agnew’s revised theory
examines strains such as physical, emotional and sexual abuse,
unemployment, self-esteem and self-efficacy.
Baron, S. W. 2004. ‘General Strain, street youth and crime: A test
of Agnew’s revised theory’, Criminology, 42(2), pp’ 447-482.
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 5. Provide a reference to another
article citing this one.

M. Grosholz, J & C. Semenza D (2019) ‘Mental and physical

health in prison: how co-occurring conditions influence inmate
misconduct’, Health and Justice, 1(1), pp.1-12.
Using Agnew’s General Strain Theory, the article argues that
experiencing co-occurring forms of mental and physical
conditions in prisons creates significant accumulated strain,
potentially leading to misconduct.

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