Optoelectronics

Chapter #6
Optical Sources 1: The Laser
Optical Sources:
• The optical source function is to convert electrical energy in the into
optical energy (light) in an efficient manner which allows the light
output to be effectively launched or coupled into the optical fiber.
• Three main types of optical light source are available:
(a) wideband ‘continuous spectra’ sources (incandescent lamps);
(b) monochromatic incoherent sources (light-emitting diodes, LEDs);
(c) monochromatic coherent sources (lasers).
• The development of the semiconductor injection laser and the LED,
together with the substantial improvement in the properties of optical
fibers, has given importance to these two specific sources.
Desirable Characteristics of Optical Sources:

1. A size and configuration compatible with launching light into an optical fiber.
Ideally, the light output should be highly directional.
2. Must accurately track the electrical input signal to minimize distortion and noise.
Ideally, the source should be linear.
3. Should emit light at wavelengths where the fiber has low losses and low dispersion
and where the detectors are efficient (Emission within low loss window).
4. Preferably capable of simple signal modulation over a wide bandwidth extending
from audio frequencies to beyond the gigahertz range.
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5. Must couple sufficient optical power to overcome attenuation in the fiber plus
additional connector losses and leave suitable power to drive the detector.
6. Should have a very narrow spectral bandwidth (linewidth) in order to minimize
dispersion in the fiber.
7. Must be capable of maintaining a stable optical output which is largely unaffected
by changes in ambient conditions (e.g. temperature).
8. It is essential that the source is comparatively cheap and highly reliable in order to
compete with conventional transmission techniques.
Most Important Characteristics of Optical
Sources:
• Emission with in Low Loss Window
• Narrow Spectral Width.
Consider these two aspects of Optical source, then the choices
of optical sources will be limited.
Various Optical Sources:
• Gas Sources (Lasers):
High Power
 High Directional
Narrow Spectral Width
• Semiconductor Sources (Light Emitting Diode) and Injection
Laser Diode (ILD)
Low Power
Large Spectral Width
Non-directional Radiations
Various Optical Sources:
• The gas sources may be quite appropriate because they satisfy the basic criteria
very satisfactorily.
• However, semiconductor base sources have integration with electronics and all
modulations circuits.
• As a result Semiconductor sources are compatible for optical fiber.
• There are two sources, one is light emitting diodes what is called LED or other
one is called the Injection Laser Diode (ILD).
• Both are diodes, but depending upon their fabrication, their radiation
characteristics change.
• For a semiconductor source which is a diode the power is rather limited, it can
emit only small amount of power.
• Two fundamental characteristics of , the spectral width of the emitted light and the
efficiency of light generation is important for semiconductor sources.
Band Diagram of Semiconductor Material:
• Electrons are in the conduction band.
• Having vacancy of electrons at the valence band.
• Electrons and hole can recombine. And when the recombination takes place then there is a
possibility that the energy difference of these two can be released in the form of a photon.
• Now when generation of light or interaction of light with matter takes place, we have to
essentially take the quantum model of light that is the light is a collection of photons.
Each photon has a energy.
• Whenever a recombination of electron hole takes place, one may get emission of photon
or may not get emission of photon.
• If a photon is released, then that recombination process is called as the radiative
recombination process and if the photon is not released, if the energy is gone into some
other form then that process is a non radiative recombination process.
Energy band diagrams: (a) n-type semiconductor; (b) p-type semiconductor
Band Diagram of Semiconductor Material:
• Efficiency Factor:
The ratio of the recombination which are responsible for photon generation to
the total recombination which take place is essentially called efficiency factor.
• On the basis of radiative recombination process, semiconductors are divide
into two categories:
The direct band gap material
The indirect band gap material.
• The energy band diagram of the semiconducting materials in the energy
momentum space is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 is basically the energy
versus momentum diagram.
Figure 2: Energy–momentum diagrams showing the types of transition: (a) direct bandgap
semiconductor; (b) indirect bandgap semiconductor
Some direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors with calculated
recombination coefficients
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• When the recombination of the electron hole takes place, essentially only one process is
involved and that is the energy difference of these two carriers. So, these can combine and
can give a corresponding photon out of an energy, which is equal to the difference of
these two energies. This material is called as the direct band gap material.
• The material, where the conduction and the valence band are not aligned in the
momentum space. Then if the recombination of the electron and hole has to take place,
energy is released.
• Since two processes are involved in recombination, the probability of two processes
taking place simultaneously is much smaller than simply the probability of recombining.
• The material which is indirect band material then by injecting electrons and holes, the
recombination probability for generation of photon is much smaller than direct band
material where electrons and holes can recombine easily and can give a photon out.
• First requirement now for generation of light is that we have to identify the
semiconducting material which is of direct band nature.
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• Material like silicon or germanium which are used for electronics, but silicon
and germanium both these materials are indirect band gap material. These
material are essentially indirect band gap. What that means is that, probability
of generation of light by this device is extremely small. So, one can not make a
light emitting diode or a light emitting source by using a material like silicon or
germanium.
• The most thoroughly investigated material which has direct band nature is the
gallium arsenide. That is the reason it has a high efficiency of photon
generation.
• Conclusion:
Making light emitting device we have, to identify a proper material, which is
of direct band nature. Having done that, then the next question arises that for
a direct band material what will be the wavelength of the light emitted.