Photodiode

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into current or
voltage based on the mode of operation of the device.

Under forward bias condition, conventional current will flow from the anode to the
cathode, following the arrow in the diode symbol. Photocurrent flows in the
reverse direction.

Types of Photodiode
The working of different types of photodiodes work in a slightly different way, but
the basic operation of these diodes remains the same. The types of the photodiodes
can be classified based on its construction and functions as follows.

• PN Photodiode
• Schottky Photo Diode
• PIN Photodiode
• Avalanche Photodiode
The required materials to make a photodiode and the range of electromagnetic
spectrum wavelength range includes the following

• For silicon material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range will be (190-1100)
nm
• For Germanium material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range will be (400-
1700) nm
• For Indium gallium arsenide material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range will
be (800-2600) nm
• For Lead (II) sulfide material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range will be
<1000-3500) nm
• For Mercury, cadmium Telluride material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range
will be (400-14000) nm
Working of Photodiode
The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes
the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. If the absorption arises in the
depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by the
inbuilt electric field of the depletion region. Therefore, holes in the region move
toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will
be generated. The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of
light and the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize the
sensitivity of the device.

PN Junction Diode
Applications of Photodiode
• The applications of photodiodes involve in similar applications of photodetectors like
charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
• These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact disc
players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
• In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights,
photoconductors are more frequently used rather than photodiodes.
• Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science
& industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.
• Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to
analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.
• These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence
are frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.
Introduction to Optoelectronic integrated circuits

Technologies for integrating optoelectronic devices and electronic circuitry can be

classified as either hybrid or monolithic.

Hybrid integration involves combining optoelectronic devices and integrated circuits

in the same package or substrate. This can be done using traditional hybrid techniques for
simply combining packaged devices on a ceramic substrate, but the device density of the
resulting optoelectronic integrated circuit (OEIC) is very low and many of the advantages of
using optics are lost.

Hybrid integration offers an immediate solution to certain OEIC needs, and it may
always be the technology of choice when many different kinds of devices need to be
combined, but monolithic integration will always be superior in terms of speed, device
density, system reliability, ultimate complexity, and manufacturablity. A major difficulty
with monolithic integration is that the most widely used, highly developed material for
integrated electronics, silicon, is not useful for many optoelectronic devices and thus one
must either monolithically integrate III-V optoelectronic devices on silicon, or one must
utilize III-V electronics.

OLED
An OLED (Organic Light-Emitting Diode) is similar to an LED; however, an OLED has an emissive
electroluminescent layer of film made up of organic molecules. Light is emitted when electrical
current travels through the organic molecules.

There are two main families of OLED: those based on small molecules and those employing
polymers. An OLED display can be driven with a passive-matrix (PMOLED) or active-matrix
(AMOLED) control scheme. In the PMOLED scheme, each row (and line) in the display is
controlled sequentially, one by one, whereas AMOLED control uses a thin-film transistor
backplane to directly access and switch each individual pixel on or off, allowing for higher
resolution and larger display sizes.

An OLED consists of 6 layers that all play a role in making the OLED well-structured and energy
efficient:

1. Seal: Glass top plate

 2. Cathode: Negatively charged electrode (attracts the holes or cations)
3. Emissive Layer: Made up of organic molecules or polymers that transport electrons from the
cathode layer
4. Conductive Layer: Made up of organic molecules or polymers that transport holes from
anode layer
5. Anode: Positively charged electrode (attracts electrons or anions)
6. Substrate: Glass bottom plate

How do OLEDs Emit Light?

Electrical current needs to be applied to the anode and cathode layer for the OLED to emit light.
Energy travels from the cathode layer, through the organic material (emissive and conductive layer),
and to the anode layer. The current gives electrons to the emissive layer and removes electrons from
the conductive layer. The removal of the electrons leaves holes in the conductive layer that need to
be re-filled with electrons. To recombine with electrons the holes jump from the conductive layer to the
electron-filled emissive layer. As the electrons fill these holes extra energy is released, which
produces the bright, electroluminescent light that is visible through the outermost layer of glass
(substrate and seal).

Types of OLEDs and Their Uses

There are various types of OLEDs, such as passive-matrix OLEDs, active-matrix OLEDs, transparent
OLEDs, top-emitting OLEDs, foldable OLEDs, and white OLEDs.