Course Teacher: Farhana Sultana What is a Sociological Perspective? • a sociological mindset in regards to being able to connect individual experiences and societal relationships. • the lens that an individual chooses to view the scope of society from. • an outlook that goes beyond the obvious and questions what is accepted as true or common sense. Why do we need a sociological perspective? • To help us to see general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals • To gain insights about the social world that extend far beyond explanations that rely on individual quirks and personalities Scopes of Analysis • Macro Level: the study • Micro Level: the study of social structure of individual social and/or institutions interaction – the position within the – an individual’s social structure (status, interpretation of a roles, institutions) situation and the determines human meaning they give it behavior. define human behavior. Major Sociological Perspectives • Structural Functionalism • Conflict Theory • Interactionalism Theory Structural Functionalism • Tries to identify the structures of society and how they function. • Stresses that relations among the individuals, groups and societies follow well-defined patterns of social organization. • Emphasizes stability, harmony and evolution The Structural Functionalism Model Structural Functionalism • Macro theory • Views society as a system – The society is a set of interconnected parts which together form a whole. – The basic unit of analysis is society, and its various parts are understood primarily in terms of their relationship to the whole. – Can be understood by the human body analogy • functionalists argue that an understanding of any organ in the body, such as the heart or lungs, involves an understanding of its relationship to other organs and in particular, its contribution towards the maintenance if the organism. Structural Functionalism (Cont.) • Interdependence – Each and every part of a society are interrelated and interdependent and therefore contributing to the maintenance of the whole. – Change in any one part would result in change in the other parts in society. – Every individual in society has a part to play which leads to interdependence of individuals and determines the smooth running of society. Structural Functionalism (Cont.) – Each individual has a status in society and with this status comes a role that he/she performs. – A role is the behavior which is expected of the individual who occupies a given social position/status in society. – People have many roles in society despite his status/position. – For example, a woman may be a doctor, her status, and she may have to play the role of mother, daughter, aunt, sister, etc. Structural Functionalism(Cont.) • Equilibrium – Remember functionalists see each part of the system as being interrelated and interdependent. – Functionalists maintain that each part must be functioning properly, fulfilling its functions, and must therefore, be in equilibrium if it is to contribute to the maintenance of the equilibrium of the whole. – Change in these system must be orderly. – Any change in one institution results in an orderly movement of the forces within that institution toward equilibrium, thus resulting in the movement of the whole to a new equilibrium, which maintains social order. Structural Functionalism (Cont.) • Consensus – Functionalists see individual behavior as being governed by norms and values that are generally acceptable in society. – Norms are defined as “specific rules of behavior, agreed upon and shared, that prescribe limits if acceptable behavior.” (Tischler; 2002) – Norms are patterns of behaviour that are specific to a society and may differ from one society to another. – Values refer to “notions of what is good and bad, what is desirable and undesirable.” (Tischler; 2002) Structural Functionalism (Cont.) – The norms and values that are universally adhered to in the society are embodied in the formal laws of the country and govern social behavior. – This trend contributes to consensus in society. – If someone adheres to the norms, rewards would be achieved, whereas if the behaviour deviated from the norm, punishment would result. – Norms are not written or documented in formal ways but are passed on from generation to generation through the process of socialization. Specialists of Structural Functionalism • Auguste Comte – Positivism – 3 Stages of Society • Emile Durkheim – Social Facts – Collective Conscience – Social Stability Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857) Auguste Comte’s Perspective • Saw the science of society (which he termed Sociology) as essentially similar to natural science (biology, physics, etc). • His positivist approach was based on the principle of direct observation, which could be explained by theoretical statements based on established causal, law-like generalizations. • Comte said that the task of Sociology is to gain reliable knowledge of the social world in order to make predictions about it, and, on the basis of those predictions, to intervene and shape social life in progressive ways. Auguste Comte’s Perspective (Cont.) • Most sociologists today think such reliable, predictive knowledge can’t ever be achieved in relation to human beings. • The main reason why so many sociologists reject Comtean positivism is because they see the idea of shaping and controlling people and societies as impossible, potentially dangerous or both. • Besides, we cannot study humans in a laboratory, or the same way we would study a frog as people act in ways that are unpredictable. Auguste Comte’s Perspective (Cont.) • Comte’s ideas were extremely influential and his theory of development of the sciences was an inspiration to other thinkers working with theories of evolutionary social development. • Comte believed that society has passed through three stages: – Theological: thoughts were guided by religious ideas and society is an expression of God’s will. – Metaphysical: accounted through the Renaissance Period as society is seen as natural and not supernatural. – Positive: Encouragement of the application of scientific knowledge to analyze society. Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917) Emile Durkheim’s Perspective • Influenced by Comte. • People are exclusively the products of their social environment. • Society shapes people in every possible way. • Durkheim saw the study of social phenomenon was needed whenever research into people’s actions went beyond their individual interactions. Emile Durkheim’s Perspective (Cont.) • Social institutions and social forms – social movements and the family – outlive the particular individual who inhibit them and they therefore must have a reality of their own. • This reality cannot be adequately understood by an individualistic psychology or abstract philosophical speculation. • In Durkheim’s view, what we call ‘the social’ is a level of reality in its own right that cannot be reduced to mere action, nor the simple combined individual consciences. • Thus Durkheim focuses on group phenomena and social facts such as comparative suicide rates., social solidarity and religion. Emile Durkheim’s Perspective • Another example is his work on The Division of Labour in Society (1893) where he outlined the difference between mechanic and organic forms of social solidarity. ‒ Mechanical Solidarity (automatic) - everyone acts in the same way; laws are repressive and designed to punish. ‒ Organic Solidarity (modern societies) - people stay together because they need each other’s services, laws are restrictive and designed to restore contractual nature of human relations. • Durkheim argued that society has a reality of its own over and above the individual who comprise it. Emile Durkheim’s Perspective (Cont.) • Members of society are constrained by “social facts” by “ways of acting, thinking and feeling, external to the individual, and endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they control him.” • Beliefs and moral codes are passed from generation to generation and shared by members who make up society. • From this point of view, it is not the consciousness of the individual that directs behavior, but common beliefs and sentiments that transcend the individual and shape his/her consciousness. Collective Conscience. • Durkheim sees society as a system separately from social actors. Social Equilibrium • Importance is placed on value consensus so that sociology can analyze the “institutionalization of patterns of value orientation in the social system”. • When values are institutionalized and behavior is structured in terms of them, the result is a stable system. • A state of ‘social equilibrium’ is attained when the various parts of the system is in a state of balance. Two Ways to maintain Social Equilibrium • Socialization – this is where society’s values are transmitted from one generation to the next and internalized to form an integral part of individual personalities. • Social Control – various mechanism of social control discourage deviance and so maintain social order; this may be done formally (via the laws of a society) or informally (via the values/morals of a society) Conflict Theory • Addresses the point of stress and conflict in society and the way they contribute to social change. • Views a society’s legal system as a political instrument used by the wealthy and powerful to protect and extend their privileges, not a rational tool for the resolution of conflict and preservation of order. • Society is not about solidarity or social consensus but about competition. Conflict Theory (Cont.) • Alternative to functionalism • Macro-sociological theoretical perspective • Resentment and hostility are constant elements of society • Power differences among social classes • Special interest groups fight over scarce resources of society – Interest groups fight to gain advantages over others The Conflict Theory Model Conflict Theory vs Marxism Conflict Theory Marxism • Power is the core of ALL • Much like conflict theory social relationships. but power is gained through economics – Characterized by an economic struggle between the haves and have-nots. Conflict Theory (Cont.) • Competition puts society off-balance until dominant group gains control and stability through power. Influences: Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) • Humanist: wanted all individuals to reach their full human potential • Believed humans make their own history (historical method) • Controlling material production division of labor formation of economic social classes Class struggle • Tried to combine material and ideal factors/ structural and cultural factors Karl Marx (Cont.) • Society was a two-class system: 1. Bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) 2. Proletariat (workers) Influences: Max Weber (1864- 1920) • Agreed with Marx (economics played a central role in power distinction). • Believed in Two other factors: 1. Social prestige (status) • Example: someone could be poor and still hold a lot of power because of social prestige Mother Theresa 2. Political influence • Example: Politician who has great power, but does not earn a big salary Max Weber (Cont.) • Weber defined power as “the ability to impose one’s will on another, even when the other objects”. • Authority: legitimate power; used with consent of the ruled • Distribution of power and authority = basis of social conflict • HOWEVER: if subordinates believe in the authority = avoided conflict. If authority is not recognized as a legitimate = conflict. Max Weber (Cont.) • People with power want to keep it • People w/out power want to seek it • 3 types of authority: 1. Rational-legal 2. Traditional 3. Charismatic Relevancy • Maintains that what social order does, is the result of power elites’ coercion of masses • Those without power seek social change • Two class system by Marx • Contemporary conflict theorists don’t limit power to just economics, but also look at other issues Relevancy (Cont.) • Three criticisms of conflict theory: – Ignores other ways (i.e. non-forceful ways in which people reach agreements – Sides with people who lack power – Focuses on economic factors as the sole issue for all conflict in society • This is primarily for Marx’s approach . Relevancy (Cont.) • Differences in power are in all types of interaction. • Power used to be physical. Now however, it’s legal and economic.