Chapter 1-ICE Update

Internal Combustion Engine
1
21.09.20
Contents
1-Introduction (History, Engine classification, Engine component
and Engine emissions)
2-Operating Characteristics (Engine parameters, Torque, Power,
pressure, Efficiency, Volumetric efficiency)
3-Engine cycles (Otto cycle, SI cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual cycle, CI
cycle)
4-Thermochemistry and Fuels (Hydrocarbon Fuels-Gasoline,
Self-Ignition and Octane Number, Diesel Fuel)
5-Air and Fuel induction (Fuel Injectors, Carburetors,
Supercharging and Turbocharging)
6-Cooling system: a. (Types, principle of operation, parts of
air/water cooling system)
7-Internal
Engine Emissions
Combustion Engine
and their control 21.09.20
2
INTRODUCTION
• Heat engine : It can be defined as any engine that convert

thermal energy to mechanical work output. Examples of
hea engines include: steam engine, diesel engine, and
gasoline (petrol engine.
• On the basis of how thermal energy is being delivered to

workin fluid of the heat engine, heat engine can be
classified as an internal combustion engine and external
combustion engine.
3
INTRODUCTION
The internal combustion engine is a heat engine that converts chemical

energy in a fuel into mechanical energy
Chemical
Heat
Mechanical
This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases
within the engine, and the high-pressure gas then expands against the
mechanical mechanisms of the engine. This expansion is converted by the
mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating crankshaft, which is the
output of the engine.
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Internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines having pistons that reciprocate
back and forth in cylinders internally within the engine.
Engine types not covered by this course include steam engines and gas turbine engines,
which are better classified as external combustion engines (i.e., combustion takes place
outside the mechanical engine system)
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6
INTRODUCTION
• In an Internal combustion engine, combustion takes place within working

fluid of the engine, thus fluid gets contaminated with combustion products.
 Petrol engine is an example of internal combustion engine, where the working fluid
is a mixture of air and fuel .
• An external combustion engine burns fuel externally, or outside the engine.

The burning fuel releases thermal energy, which is used to heat water and
change it to steam. The pressure of the steam moves a piston back and forth
inside a cylinder. The kinetic energy of the moving piston can be used to
turn a vehicle’s wheels, a turbine, or other mechanical device.
 Steam engine is an example of external combustion engine, where the working fluid
is steam.
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8
Difference between internal and External Combustion
9
Merits and Demerits of External Combustion Engine
Advantages of external combustion engines
1.Almost any kind of fuel that is available can be used
2.Since power is not generated due to detonation of fuel hence
very less noise is generated.
3.Engine emissions are also very low
4.Very economical for huge power generation
Disadvantages of external combustion engines

1.Not suitable for low load requirements
2.Leakage of working fluid
3.Lubricant consumption
4.Size of engine is relatively big
5.Overall working temperature is high so great care and special
building materials are required 10
Historical Development of the I.C.

Engine
• 1862 -- Rochas described the basic principles essential for
efficient engine operation.
• 1878 – Otto built the first successful 4-stroke cycle
engine.
• 1891 – Day built an improved 2-stroke cycle engine.
• 1892 – Diesel patented the compression-ignition (diesel)
engine.
• To present – emphasis on improved engine efficiency,
through refinement.
• You
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ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of different ways:
1. Types of Ignition
(a) Spark Ignition (SI). An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a
spark plug. The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge between two electrodes
which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber surrounding the plug.
(b) Compression Ignition (CI). The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-
fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by
high compression.
2. Engine Cycle
(a) Four-Stroke Cycle. A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements over two
engine revolutions for each cycle.
(b) Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one revolution
for each cycle.
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3. Valve Location
(a) Valves in head (overhead valve), also called I Head engine.

(b) Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine. Some historic engines with
valves in block had the intake valve on one side of the cylinder and the exhaust valve on
the other side. These were called T Head engines.
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4. Basic Design
(a) Reciprocating. Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back
and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power
is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons.
(b) Rotary. Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric rotor and
crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating block.
5. Position and Number of Cylinders
(a) Single Cylinder. (d) Opposed Cylinder Engine. (g) Radial Engine.
(b) In-Line. (e) W Engine.
(c) V Engine. (f) Opposed Piston Engine.
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5. Position and Number of Cylinders
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16
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6. Air Intake Process
(a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure boost system.

(b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven
off of the engine crankshaft (Fig. 1-8).
(c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor
driven by the engine exhaust gases (Fig. 1-9).
(d) Crankcase Compressed. Two-stroke cycle engine which uses the crankcase as the
intake air compressor. Limited development work has also been done on design and
construction of four-stroke cycle engines with crankcase compression.
7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines
(a) Carbureted.
(b) Multipoint Port Fuel Injection. One or more injectors at each cylinder intake.
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8. Fuel Used
(a) Gasoline.
(b) Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil.
(c) Gas, Natural Gas, Methane.
(d) LPG.
(e) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl.
(f) Dual Fuel. There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or more
fuels. Some, usually large, CI engines use a combination of methane and diesel fuel.
These are attractive in developing third-world countries because of the high cost of
diesel fuel. Combined gasoline-alcohol fuels are becoming more common as an
alternative to straight gasoline automobile engine fuel.
(g) Gasohol. Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol.
9. Application
(a) Automobile, Truck, Bus.

(b) Locomotive.
(c) Stationary.
(d) Marine.
(e) Aircraft.
(f) Small Portable, Chain Saw, Model Airplane. 20
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1O. Type of Cooling
(a) Air Cooled.

(b) Liquid Cooled, Water Cooled.
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ENGINE COMPONENTS
Name of Engine Parts

Valve cover Rocker arm
Valve spring
Valve Push rod
Piston Piston pin

Valve tappet
Connecting rod
Camshaft
Engine block
Crankshaft
Connecting rod cap
Oil pan 22
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23
Internal Combustion Engine Components
ENGINE COMPONENTS
Cylinder Block
Cylinder is the main body of IC engine.
•Cylinder is a part in which the intake of fuel, compression of fuel and
burning of fuel take place. (or combustion occur)
•The main function of cylinder is to guide the piston.
•It is in direct contact with the products of combustion so it must be
cooled. For cooling of cylinder a water jacket (for liquid cooling used
in most of cars) or fin (for air cooling used in most of bikes) are
situated at the outer side of cylinder.
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2. Cylinder head
• The top end of the engine cylinder is closed by means of removable
cylinder head. There are two holes or ports at the cylinder head, one for
intake of fuel and other for exhaust.
• The main function of cylinder head is to seal the cylinder block and not
to permit entry and exit of gases on cover head valve engine.
• The inlet valve, exhaust valve, spark plug, injector etc. are bolted on the
cylinder head.
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3. Piston
• A piston is fitted to each cylinder as a face to
receive gas pressure and transmit the thrust
to the connecting rod. It is a prime mover in
the engine.
• It convert fuel energy to mechanical energy
• Piston should be light and sufficient strong to
handle gas pressure generated by combustion
of fuel. So the piston is made by aluminum
alloy and sometimes it is made by cast iron
alloy
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4. Piston ring
• To provide a good sealing fit and less friction
resistance between the piston and cylinder,
pistons are equipped with piston rings.
• These rings are fitted in grooves which have been
cut in the piston. They are split at one end so they
can expand or slipped over the end of piston.
• A small two stroke engine has two piston rings to
provide good sealing but a four stroke engine has
an extra ring which is known as oil ring. Piston
rings are made of cast iron of fine grain and high
elastic material which is not affected by the
working heat.
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5- Connecting rod
• Connects the piston to the crankshaft
• Converts reciprocating piston motion to
rotary motion at the crankshaft.
• Big end is connected to the crankshaft
• small end is connected to the piston by
use of piston pin.
• The connecting rods are made of nickel,
chrome, and chrome vanadium steels.
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6- Crankshaft
Works with connecting rod to change reciprocating to rotary motion.

It receives the efforts or thrust supplied by piston to the connecting rod and converts the
reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of crankshaft.
The crankshaft mounts in bearing so it can rotate freely.
Made of heat-treated steel alloys.
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7- Crankcase
• The main body of the engine at which the cylinder
are attached and which contains the crankshaft
and crankshaft bearing is called crankcase.
• It serves as the lubricating system too and
sometime it is called oil sump
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8- Camshaft
Camshaft is used in IC engine to control the opening and closing of
valves at proper timing.
It is drive by the timing belt or chain which drives by crankshaft.
2:1 crankshaft to camshaft gear ratio.
L ift
N ose
B a s e c ir c le
C a m P r o file
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9. Valves
• To control the inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engine,
valves are used. The number of valves in an engine depends on
the number of cylinders. Two valves are used for each cylinder
• The valves are fitted in the port at the cylinder head by use of
strong spring.
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10- Spark plug

•It is used in spark ignition engine. The main function of
a spark plug is to conduct a high potential from the
ignition system into the combustion chamber to ignite
the compressed air fuel mixture. It is fitted on cylinder
head.
11- Injector
•Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine.
It sprays the fuel into combustion chamber at the end
of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder head.
33
12-Exhaust manifold : Piping system which carries exhaust gases away
from the engine cylinders, usually made of cast iron .
13- Lubrication systems
Internal combustions engines require lubrication in
operation that moving parts slide smoothly over each
other. Insufficient lubrication subjects the parts of the
engine to metal-to-metal contact, friction, heat build-up,
rapid wear often culminating in parts becoming friction
welded together e.g. pistons in their cylinders.
14- cooling system
Combustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this transfers to
the walls of the engine. Failure will occur if the body of the engine is
allowed to reach too high a temperature; either the engine will physically
fail, or any lubricants used will degrade to the point that they no longer
protect the engine cooling systems usually employ air (air-cooled) or
liquid (usually water) cooling
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TERMINOLOGY AND ABBREVIATIONS
The following terms and abbreviations are commonly used in engine technology
 Internal Combustion (IC)
 Spark Ignition (SI) An engine in which the combustion process in each cycle is started
by use of a spark plug.
 Compression Ignition (CI) An engine in which the combustion process starts when the
air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused
by high compression.
Dead centers are the farthest and nearest positions of a
piston from the crankshaft in an IC engine.
 Top-Dead-Center (TDC) Position of the piston when it

stops at the furthest point away from the crankshaft.
 Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC) Position of the piston
when it stops at the point closest to the crankshaft.
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 Stroke Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position to the other:
TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.
 Clearance Volume Minimum volume in the combustion chamber with piston at TDC.
 Displacement or Displacement Volume Volume displaced by the piston as it travels
through one stroke.
 Smart Engine Engine with computer controls that regulate operating characteristics
such as air-fuel ratio, ignition timing, valve timing, exhaust control, intake tuning, etc.
 Air-Fuel Ratio (AF) Ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input into engine.
 Fuel-Air Ratio (FA) Ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.
 Ignition Delay (ID) Time interval between ignition initiation and the actual start of
Combustion
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Indicator Diagram
• It is graph between pressure and volume
• Pressure is taken on vertical axis whereas
volume on horizontal axis
• It is obtained by instrument known as
indicator
• There are two types of indicator diagram
(a) Theoretical or hypothetical
(b) actual
40
Four-Stroke Engines
• A simple four-stroke petrol
(gasoline) engine with a
conventional carburettor and
ignition system.
• Air is drawn into the engine
through the carburettor,
where fuel is added. The
resultant fuel-air mixture is
then ducted to the top of the
engine, ready to be drawn
into the cylinder.
41
Starting
position Compressio
Suction
stroke n
stroke
Power
Ignition Expansion
stroke
stroke
Four-Stroke Engines
• The four strokes are:-
• Induction - the piston moves downwards, drawing the fuel-air mixture through
an open inlet valve into the top of the cylinder, an area known as the
combustion chamber.
• Compression - the inlet valve closes and the piston moves upwards,
compressing the fuel-air mixture, which causes it to become quite hot. As the
piston approaches the top of the stroke, known as Top Dead Centre (TDC), an
electrical discharge from the spark plug ignites the fuel-air mixture. As it burns,
the mixture produces very hot gases, which expand because of the heat.
• Ignition / Power - with all the valves still closed, the expanding gases force the
piston downwards again.
• Exhaust - an exhaust valve opens and the piston moves upwards again, pushing
the spent gases out of the cylinder. At the end of the exhaust stroke, the
exhaust valve closes and the inlet valve opens, ready for the next induction
stroke.
43
Four-Stroke Cycle C.I. Engine
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BASIC ENGINE CYCLES
Most internal combustion engines, both spark ignition and compression ignition, operate on
either a four-stroke cycle or a two-stroke cycle.
A- Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the
intake valve open and exhaust valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in the
combustion chamber, which in turn creates a vacuum.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes
and the piston travels back to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel
mixture, raising both the pressure and temperature in the cylinder.
3. Combustion: Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length of
time with the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant-volume combustion).
4. Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke With all valves closed, the high pressure
created by the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which
produces the work output of the engine cycle.
5. Exhaust Blowdown Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and exhaust
blow down occurs.
6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown is
complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure.
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B- Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with one
major difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke The same as in an SI engine except that only air is
compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature.
3. Combustion Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about constant
pressure until fuel injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC.
4. Third Stroke: Power Stroke The power stroke continues as combustion ends and the
piston travels towards BDC.
5. Exhaust Blowdown Same as with an SI engine.
6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke Same as with an SI engine.
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Two-Stroke Cycle Engines
• One cycle is completed in 2 strokes of the piston (in one revolution
of the crankshaft).
• It has only ports at the cylinder walls and has no valves.
• {Suction + compression }---- 1st stroke

• {power + exhaust } ----- 2nd stroke
Overall, a two-stroke engine contains two processes:
• Compression stroke: The inlet port opens, the air-fuel mixture
enters the chamber and the piston moves upwards compressing
this mixture. A spark plug ignites the compressed fuel and begins
the power stroke.
• Power stroke: The heated gas exerts high pressure on the piston,
the piston moves downward (expansion), waste heat is exhausted.
48
Bottom of Downstroke - Induction/Exhaust
•The piston has moved down, uncovering both the inlet (transfer) and exhaust ports.
The descending piston has increased the pressure in the crankcase, so the fuel-air
mixture is being pumped from the crankcase via the transfer port into the combustion
chamber.
Top of Upstroke - Compression
•The piston has passed Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) and is now rising. The inlet and
exhaust ports are both covered, so the fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber is
being pressurised and is heating up. At the same time, a vacuum is developing in the
crankcase, so a fresh charge of fuel-air is being drawn into the crankcase from the
carburettor. As the piston rounds TDC, a high voltage discharge from the spark plug
ignites the mixture in the combustion chamber.
49
Top of Downstroke - Ignition/Power
•With both ports still closed, the pressure of the expanding gases
forces the piston down again. The pressure in the crankcase is already
rising. Later in the downstroke the exhaust port will be uncovered,
allowing the spent gases to escape. Very shortly after that the
inlet/transfer port will also be uncovered, which takes the engine back
to where it was at the start of the cycle.
50
Two-Stroke Cycle Engines
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Comparison of Two-Stroke
vs. Four-Stroke Cycle Engines
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Comparison between Petrol & Diesel Engine
Sl.No Details Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
1 Fuel Ignition By spark plug (SI By hot compressed air

Engine) (CI engine)
2 Charge during Air & fuel mixture are Air alone is admitted and
suction stroke admitted fuel is injected
3 Compression Low (6 to 8) High (16 to 20)
ratio
4 Cycle of Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle
operations
5 Weight Light Heavy
First Law Analysis of Engine Cycle
54
Engine theory and calculations
Performance of I.C.Engines
55
THE INDICATOR POWER (I.P.)
• This is defined as the rate of work done by the gas on
the piston
• Indicator power represents the maximum power from the
engine under ideal or perfect condition.
• I.p is calculated on the basis of engine size, displacement,
operational speed and the pressure developed theoretically
in the cylinder.
• Ip will always be more than b.p.
56
• N= N/2 for four stroke engine
indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
The average pressure produced in the combusti
on chamber during the operating cycle. It is an
expression of the theoretical, frictionless power
known as indicated horsepower.
Hence, IP = pm x A x L x n (Nm/min)/Cycle/Cylinder
p m LAn
 ( Nm / s / cylinder )
60
p m LAn
 IP  x No of Cylinders (kW57 )
60,000
58
Brake Power
• Brake power is defined as the power developed by
an engine at the output shaft
59
60
Frictional Power (FP)
• Difference between IP and BP is called FP
• FP includes:
- Pumping losses due to intake & exhaust processes
- Frictional losses in bearings, rotary/sliding parts
- Power required to drive auxiliaries like governor,
water, lub oil, fuel pumps, alternator/dynamo,
valve operating mechanism etc
• FP increases as square of N but practically FP ∞ N1.6
• Higher FP results in:
- Reduced power output
- Decreased mech efficiency
- Increased bsfc
- Increased requirement of cooling
Mechanical efficiency (ηm): Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake
horse power (delivered power) to the indicated horsepower (power
provided to the piston).
Brake thermal efficiency (ηbth): A measure of overall efficiency

of the engine is given by the brake thermal efficiency. Brake
thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power to
the fuel energy.
BP
b 
m f  CV
62
Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith): Indicated thermal
efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power to the
fuel energy.
IP
i 
m f  CV
- Where mf is fuel consumed in kg/sec 63
- CV is Calorific Value of fuel in kJ/kg IP/BP is in kW

64
Relative Efficiency : Defined as the ratio of Brake
Thermal Efficiency to Air Standard Efficiency at same
Compression Ratio(CR)
b
r  x100
a
65
Examples 1.
The mechanical efficiency of a single-cylinder four-stroke engine is
80%. The friction power is estimated to be 25kW. Calculate the
indicated power (ip) and brake power (bp) developed by the
engine.
Data:
ηm=0.8
fp=25 kW
Solution:
ηm=bp/ip = 0.8  bp=0.8ip
fp=ip – bp = 25
(ip – 0.8 x ip) = 25
ip = 25/0.2 = 125kW
bp = ip – fp = 125 – 25 = 100kW
Examples 2.
A 42.5kW engine has a mechanical efficiency of 85%. Find the indicated power
and frictional power. (b)If the frictional power is assumed to be constant
with load, what will be the mechanical efficiency at 60% of the load?
Data:
bp=42.5 kW, ηm = 0.85, (a) I.P=? Fp=? (b) ηm =? At 60% load
Solution:
Indicated power, ip = bp/ ηm = 42.5/0.85 = 50 kW
Frictional power, fp = ip – bp = 50 – 42.5
= 7.5 kW
Brake power at 60% load = 42.5 x 0.6 = 25.5 kW

Mechanical efficiency ηm = bp/ (bp + fp) = 25.5/ (25.5 + 7.5)
=0.773 = 77.3%
ENGINE EMISSIONS AND AIR POLLUTION
The exhaust of automobiles is one of the major contributors to the world's air pollution
problem. Recent research and development has made major reductions in engine
emissions, but a growing population and a greater number of automobiles means that the
problem will exist for many years to come.
Four major emissions produced by internal combustion engines are hydrocarbons (He),
carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and solid particulates.
1- Hydrocarbons are fuel molecules which did not get burned and smaller non-equilibrium
particles of partially burned fuel.
2- Carbon monoxide occurs when not enough oxygen is present to fully react all carbon to
CO2 or when incomplete air-fuel mixing occurs due to the very short engine cycle time.
3- Oxides of nitrogen are created in an engine when high combustion temperatures cause
some normally stable N2 to dissociate into monatomic nitrogen N, which then combines with
reacting oxygen.
4- Solid particulates are formed in compression ignition engines and are seen as black smoke
in the exhaust of these engines. Other emissions found in the exhaust of engines include
aldehydes, sulfur, lead, and phosphorus.
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Internal Combustion Engine

Internal Combustion Engine

• Heat engine : It can be defined as any engine that convert

• On the basis of how thermal energy is being delivered to

The internal combustion engine is a heat engine that converts chemical

• In an Internal combustion engine, combustion takes place within working

is a mixture of air and fuel .

• An external combustion engine burns fuel externally, or outside the engine.

Disadvantages of external combustion engines

Historical Development of the I.C.

Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of different ways:

(a) Valves in head (overhead valve), also called I Head engine.

5. Position and Number of Cylinders

(b) In-Line. (e) W Engine.

(c) V Engine. (f) Opposed Piston Engine.

(a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure boost system.

7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines

(a) Automobile, Truck, Bus.

(a) Air Cooled.

Name of Engine Parts

Piston Piston pin

Works with connecting rod to change reciprocating to rotary motion.

10- Spark plug

 Top-Dead-Center (TDC) Position of the piston when it

• {Suction + compression }---- 1st stroke

Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

Sl.No Details Petrol Engine Diesel Engine

1 Fuel Ignition By spark plug (SI By hot compressed air

indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)

Brake thermal efficiency (ηbth): A measure of overall efficiency

- Where mf is fuel consumed in kg/sec 63

- CV is Calorific Value of fuel in kJ/kg IP/BP is in kW

Brake power at 60% load = 42.5 x 0.6 = 25.5 kW

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