Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which the likelihood that a behavior will be

repeated depends on the consequences associated with the behavior.
Reinforcement. The process by which the consequence of a behavior
increases the likelihood of the behavior’s recurrence.
1. Positive. The type of reinforcement that occurs when the desired
reinforcer is received after a behavior.
2. Negative. The type of reinforcement that occurs when an aversive
or uncomfortable stimulus is removed after the behavior.
3. Punishment. The process by which an event or object that is the
consequence of a behavior decreases the likelihood that the
behavior will occur again.
Observational Learning
A type of learning that happens when the
behavior of the model is imitated by the
observer.
Steps
1. Attentional
2. Retentional
3. Motor reproduction
4. Motivation
1. Attention. Results in selecting certain stimuli, including
those that may be related to a disorder. For example,
women with eating disorder are more likely than women
without such a disorder to focus their attention on the
parts of their bodies they consider ugly (Jansen,
Nederkoorn, & Mulkens, 2005).
2. Perception. Results in registering and identifying specific
stimuli, such as spiders or particular facial expressions of
emotion. Example, depressed people are less likely than
nondepressed people to rate neutral or mildly happy
faces as happy (Surguladze, 2004).
3. Memory. Involves storing, retaining, and
accessing stored information, including that
which is emotionally relevant to a particular
disorder. For example, people suffering from
hypochondriasis have a memory bias: they are
better able to remember health-related words
than non-health-related words (Brown, 1999).
Temperament and Psychological Disorders
• This refers to the various aspects of personality that reflect a person’s typical
emotional state and emotional reactivity.
1. Novelty seeking. Consists of searching out novel stimuli and reacting to
them positively; this dimension of temperament also involves being
impulsive, avoiding frustration, and losing one’s temper easily.
2. Harm avoidance. Consists of reacting very negatively to harm and, whenever
possible avoiding it. For example, people with anxiety disorders tend to have
higher levels of harm avoidance (Ball, et al., 2002).
3. Reward dependence. Involves the degree to which behaviors that have led
to desired outcomes in the past are repeated.
4. Persistence. Consists of making continued efforts in the face of frustration
when attempting to accomplish something. Example, a low level of
persistence is found in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Yoo et al.,
2006).
Social Factors in Psychological Disorders
Child Maltreatment
1. An altered bodily and neurological response to stress. For example, children who have
been maltreated have higher baseline levels of cortisol than do children who have not
been maltreated.
2. Behaviors that are learned as a consequence of the maltreatment. For instance,
maltreatment may result in a type of learned helplessness, so the children are more
likely to be victimized as adults (Renner & Slack, 2006).
3. Biases in discriminating and responding to facial expressions. For instance, children
who have been physically abused are more likely to perceive photographs of faces as
conveying anger than are children who have not been maltreated (Pollak et al., 2000).
4. Difficulties in attachment. Children who have been maltreated are less likely to develop
a secure type of attachment (Baer & Martinez, 2006).
5. Increased social isolation. For instance, children who have been physically abused
report feeling more socially isolated than children who have not been physically abuse
(Elliot et al., 2005).
Learned Helplessness
1. Learned Helplessness. earned helplessness is a phenomenon
observed in both humans and other animals when they have been
conditioned to expect pain, suffering, or discomfort without a way to
escape it (Cherry, 2017). Eventually, after enough conditioning, the
animal will stop trying to avoid the pain at all—even if there is an
opportunity to truly escape it!
• People become depressed if they think they can do little about the
stress in their lives. People make an attribution that they have no
control, and they become depressed.
• Learned Optimism. If people face with considerable stress and
difficulty in their lives nevertheless display an optimistic, upbeat
attitude, they are more likely to function better psychologically and
physically.
Example, Levy et al., (2002) found that
individuals ages 50 to 94 who had positive
viewed about themselves, and had positive
attitude toward aging live 7 to 8 years longer
than those who had negative attitude.
 Attachment theory
• Attachment theory is particularly relevant to abnormal
behavior because of the studies on insecurity and
anxious attachments.
• Parent-child relationships that are product of
inconsistent and unresponsive parenting during the
first year of life can have a negative impact on
childhood development.
• Anxious attachments can make children mistrustful,
dependent, and rejecting in subsequent relationships,
pattern that may continue into adult life.
Learning and Cognition
• Cognitive Psychologists study more complex learning
mechanisms such as attention, information
processing, and memory.
• Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
• One cognitive theory suggests that automatic and
distorted perceptions of reality cause people to
become depressed (Beck et al, 1979).
• For example, people prone to depression may
conclude that they are inadequate based on a single
unpleasant experience.
 Attribution
• Internal attribution. Inference that the
behavior is caused by internal factors.
• External attribution. Inference that the
behavior is caused by environmental factors.
Social Factors
• Marital Status and Psychopathology. Children
and adults from divorced families have
somewhat more psychological problems than
people from always-married families (Amato,
2001).
Institutionalization
• In some cases children are raised in an
institution where, compared with an ordinary
home, there is likely to be less warmth and
physical contact; less intellectual, emotional,
and social stimulation. It is clear that many
children deprived of normal parenting in
infancy and early childhood show maladaptive
personality development and are at risk for
psychopathology.
 Parental Psychopathology
• Children of alcoholics have elevated rates of
truancy and substance abuse and a greater
likelihood of dropping out of school, as well as
higher levels of anxiety and depression (Gotlib
& Avison, 1993).
Parenting Styles
• Authoritative. The parents are both warm and very careful
to set clear limit and restrictions regarding certain
behaviors. Children tend to be energetic and friendly and
showing development of general competencies for dealing
with others and with their environment.
• Authoritarian. The parents are high on control but low on
warmth. Children tend to be irritable, conflicted and
moody.
• Permissive-indulgent. Parents are high on warmth but low
on discipline and control. Children tend to be impulsive,
spoiled, selfish, inconsiderate, and demanding.