NDT

NONDESTRUCTIV
E TESTING
Section A
Basic Inspections
 Nondestructive testing {NDT}

• The purpose of nondestructive testing is to allow

inspection of the components without disassembly or
destruction the part.
Methods of nondestructive testing:-
• Visual inspection.
• Liquid penetrant inspection.
• Magnetic particles inspection.
• Eddy current inspection.
• Ultrasonic inspection.
• Radiographic inspection.
 Nondestructive testing
1- visual inspection
• The most fundamental method of inspecting the structure and components of
aircraft.
• The part that to be inspected should be uncovered and visible.
• The basic tool required to conduct the visual inspection:-
• A borescope- it is an optical device similar in principle to a telescope in that it
enlarges objects.
• Borescopes are typically used to inspect inside engines using the spark plug hole
for access. This optical device allows inspection without disassembly.
 Nondestructive testing
• A fiberoptic borescope is similar to a standard borescope, but has a flexible,
articulated probe that can bend around corners. This allows you to view areas
deep inside an assembly that previously required disassembly to inspect.
• a bundle of optical glass fibers transmit light from a light source to the scope's end,
or probe.. The maximum length available for fiberoptic borescopes is four feet.
[Figure 11-3]
 Nondestructive testing
Video scope.
• The video scope is similar to a fiberoptic scope, used for inspecting inaccessible
locations.
• the image is recorded by a tiny light-sensitive chip in the end of the probe and
transmitted electronically to a video monitor [Figure 11-4] .
 Nondestructive testing
Weld inspection.
visual inspection is used to inspect welds.

The characteristics of a good weld:-

• A good weld is uniform in width.
• With even ripples that taper off smoothly into the base metal.
• There should be no burn marks or signs of overheating, and no oxide should form
on the base metal more than 1/2 inch from the weld.
• A good weld must be free of gas pockets, porosity, and inclusions. [Figure 11-5)
 Nondestructive testing
Types of welds.
The most common welds encountered in aviation are:-
• Butt weld.
• Double butt weld.
• Fillet weld.
• Edge weld.
• Lap weld.
 welds
Penetration:- is the depth of fusion in a weld, and is the most important
characteristic of a good weld.
Penetration depends on a two factors :-
-The thickness of the material to be joined.
-The size of the filler rod.
-Welding technique.

butt weld should penetrate 100 %

of the thickness of the base metal.

fillet weld must penetrate 25 to 50 %.

[Figure 11-6]
 welds
Whenever a welded joint displays any of these defects, all of the old weld must be
removed and the joint rewelded.

Too much
acetylene
makes the
molten
metal
boil,
 Nondestructive testing
2- Liquid penetrant inspection
Dye penetrant inspection is based on the principle of capillary
attraction.

• suitable for locating cracks, porosity, or other types of faults open to

the surface.
• Penetrant inspection is usable on ferrous and non­ferrous metals, as
well as nonporous plastic material.
• The limitation of dye penetrant inspection is that the defect must be
open to the surface.
 Liquid penetrant inspection

how to inspect by Liquid penetrant.

• The area being inspected is covered with a penetrating liquid that

has a very low viscosity and low surface tension.
• This penetrant is allowed to remain on the surface long enough to
allow the capillary action to draw the penetrant into any fault that
extends to the surface.
• After sufficient time, the excess penetrant is washed off and the
surface is covered with a developer.
• The developer, by the process of reverse capillary action, blots the
penetrant out of cracks or other faults forming a visible line in the
developer.
NOTE-
If an indication is fuzzy instead of sharp and clear, the probable cause
is that the part was not thoroughly washed before the developer was
applied.
 Liquid penetrant inspection
• The surface being inspected is covered with a penetrating liquid.
• After sufficient time, the excess penetrant is washed off and the surface is covered
with a developer.
• cracks or other faults forming a visible line in the developer.
 Liquid penetrant inspection
Types of dyes used in liquid penetrant inspection:-
• Fluorescent :- An ultraviolet light is used with the fluorescent
penetrant and any flaw shows up as a green line.
• Colored:- with the colored dye method, faults show up as red lines
against the white developer.
 Liquid penetrant inspection
The procedures of using Liquid penetrant inspection
1-PREPARATION
• The surface of the parts to be inspected with liquid penetrant should
be free of grease, dirt, and oil.
• The best method of cleaning a surface is with a volatile petroleum-
based solvent, which effectively removes all traces of oil and grease.
• The part should not be cleaned by abrasive blasting, scraping, or
heavy brushing. These methods tend to close any discontinuities on
the surface and hide defects that could be detected.
• After the part is clean, rinse and dry it thoroughly.
 Liquid penetrant inspection
2- PENETRANT APPLICATION
• Penetrant is typically applied to a surface by immersing the part in the
liquid or by swabbing or brushing a penetrant solution onto the part's
surface some manufacturers do offer dye penetrant in spray cans.
• the area inspected must be completely covered with the penetrating liquid.
which is then allowed to remain on the surface for the manufacturer's
recommended length of time.
{dwell time} The amount of time required for a penetrant to cure.
dwell time determined by:-
1- the size of the discontinuities {small, thin cracks require a longer dwell time
than large and more open cracks.
2- The shape of the discontinuities.
NOTE
Dwell time is decreased if a part is heated. However, if the part gets too hot
the penetrant evaporates.
PENETRANT APPLICATION
the area inspected must be completely covered with the penetrating liquid. which is then
allowed to remain on the surface for the manufacturer's recommended length of time.
 Liquid penetrant inspection
3-REMOVAL OF PENETRANT.
Liquid penetrants should be removed from the surface of the part after the
recommended length of time.
Types of pentrants and methods for removal
1-Water-soluble penetrants are the easiest to remove. this type of penetrant
is flushed away with water that is sprayed at a pressure of 30 to 40 psi, with
an adjustable spray nozzle.
The spray nozzle is held at a 45 degree angle to the surface to avoid washing
the penetrant out of cracks or faults.
2-Post-emulsifying penetrants Not water soluble ,they must be treated with
emulsifying agents, This allows you to control the amount of penetrant that
is removed prior to cleaning.
3-solvent-removeable. this type of penetrant is removed with an absorbent
towel, and the part's surface is then wiped with clean towels dampened
with solvent. The solvent should not be sprayed onto the surface and the
part should not be immersed in the solvent,
 Liquid penetrant inspection
4- APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER
• There are three kinds of developers used to draw penetrants from faults.
1- DRY DEVELOPER
Dry developer is a loose powder material such as talcum that adheres to the
penetrating liquid and acts as a blotter to draw the penetrant out of any
surface faults.
2-WET DEVELOPER
• A wet developer required the surface of the part is rinsed off. Wet
developer consists of a white powder mixed with water that is either
flowed over the surface.
3-NONAQUEOUS DEVELOPER
• This is the most commonly used developer for field maintenance is the
nonaqueous type. consists of a white chalk-like powder suspended in a
solvent that is normally applied from a pressure spray can, or sprayed onto
a surface with a paint gun.
APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER
developer is adheres to the penetrating liquid and acts as a blotter to draw the
penetrant out of any surface faults.
liquid penetrant inspection: fluorescent and colored. inspect by ultraviolet light with
the fluorescent penetrant, any flaw shows up as a green line.
With the colored dye method, faults show up as red lines against the white developer.
 Nondestructive testing
3- MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC INSPECTION
• This inspection method most often used for parts made of iron
or iron alloys.
• In this method of inspection, the part should be magnetized
and an oxide containing magnetic particles is poured or sprayed
over the part's surface.
• Any discontinuities in the material on or near the surface,
create disruptions in the magnetic field around the part.
 magnetic particle inspection.
MAGNETIC ORIENTATION
• the part must be magnetized in such a way that the lines of flux are
perpendicular to the fault. This is because a flaw that is parallel to
the lines of flux causes a minimal disruption in the magnetic field.
• On the other hand, a defect that is perpendicular to the field creates
a large disruption, and is easy for an inspector to detect.
• To ensure that the flux lines are nearly perpendicular to a flaw, the
part should be magnetized both longitudinally and circularly.
 MAGNETIC ORIENTATION
1- LONGITUDINAL MAGNETISM In longitudinal magnetization,. the magnetic field is
oriented along the material so that magnetic fields form on either side of faults
located across the material.
2- CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION in this methods magnetizing the lines of magnetic flux
created encircle the part. When this occurs, flaws or faults located along the
material are magnetized and. Large flat objects are circularly magnetized by using
test probes
 magnetic particle inspection.
METHODS OF MAGNETIZATION
Ferrous materials can be magnetized in a variety of ways magnetic
fields must be precisely controlled.
1- direct current magnetization. Pure direct current at voltages from 110 to
440 volt. However, DC has the disadvantage of being difficult to change its
value as required for inspecting objects of different sizes.
2- half-wave rectified DC magnetization. commercial frequency
alternating current is available and can be rectified to DC with a half-wave
rectifier. In addition, by controlling the AC input the DC output can be
adjusted to any value.
3- alternating current magnetization. magnetic field produced by AC
differs from that produced by DC in that the field strength is almost totally
concentrated on the surface of the material.
• the penetration is very shallow. This limits the usefulness of AC
magnetization to locating surface faults only.
 magnetic particle inspection.
TESTING MEDIUM
• The material should be a high permeability, and a low retentivity. for operator
safety it is nontoxic. these materials are extremely fine iron oxides that are dyed
gray, black, red, or treated with a dye that causes them to fluoresce when
illuminated with ultraviolet light.
• The iron oxides are often used dry, but can be mixed with kerosene or some other
light oil and sprayed over a surface. Dry particles are typically applied with hand
shakers, spray bulbs, or powder guns.
 magnetic particle inspection.
TESTING METHODS
The two methods you must be familiar with are.
1- RESIDUAL MAGNETISM:- The part is magnetized and the magnetizing force is
removed before the testing medium is applied, This procedure relies on a part's
residual or permanent magnetism. The residual procedure is only used with steels
that have been heat-treated for stressed applications.
2- CONTINUOUS MAGNETISM :-The part is subjected to the magnetizing force when testing
medium applied, the continuous process of magnetization is most often used to
locate invisible defects since it provides a greater sensitivity in locating subsurface
discontinuities than does residual magnetism.
 magnetic particle inspection.
INSPECTION
The color of dye used determines the type of light used for the
inspection. If (gray, black, red) dye is used, the inspection is made
in white light.
If a fluorescent dye is used, the part is inspected using a black
light in a dark booth.

*The skill and experience of an inspector is a critical factor in

determining the effectiveness of a magnetic particle inspection.
 Types of cracks
1- FATIGUE CRACKS
Fatigue cracks give sharp, clear patterns, uniform and unbroken throughout their
length.
2- HEAT-TREAT CRACKS
Heat-treat cracks have a smooth outline, and are usually less clear with less buildup
than fatigue cracks.
3- SHRINK CRACKS
Shrink cracks give a sharp, clear pattern and the line is usually very jagged.
4- GRINDING CRACKS
Grinding cracks are fine, sharp.
5- SEAMS
Indications of seams are typically straight, sharp, and fine. They are often
intermittent and sometimes have very little buildup.
6- HAIRLINE CRACKS
Hairline cracks are very fine and sharp seams in which the faces are forced very
close together during fabrication.
7- INCLUSIONS
Inclusions are nonmetallic materials that have been trapped in the solidifying metal
during the manufacturing process show up as a broad and fuzzy indication.
FATIGUE CRACKS
Fatigue cracks give sharp, clear patterns, uniform and unbroken throughout their length.
HEAT-TREAT CRACKS
Heat-treat cracks have a smooth outline, and are usually less clear with less buildup
than fatigue cracks.
 magnetic particle inspection.
DEMAGNETIZATION
before a part is returned to service, it is required to be thoroughly
demagnetized. This is accomplished through either AC or DC
demagnetization.
AC DEMAGNETIZATION
• The part is subjected to a magnetizing force opposite the force used to magnetize
it. If the magnetizing force was AC, and if the part is slowly removed from the field
while current is still flowing, the reversing action progressively becomes weaker
and the part is demagnetized.
DC DEMAGNETIZATION
• AC current does not penetrate a surface very deeply.
• The part is placed in a coil and subjected to more current than initially used to
magnetize the part.
• the direction of current flow is reversed while decreasing the amount. The
direction of current flow continues to be reversed in direction and decreased until
the lowest value of current flow is reached.
 magnetic particle inspection.

TEST SENSITIVITY AND STANDARDS

Factors affecting sensitivity include:-
• The method of magneti­zation.
• The magnetizing amperage.
• The current type (AC or DC).
• The type of particles used.
• The method of particle application.
A test with high sensitivity locates small defects, while a test with low sensitivity
reveals only coarse flaws. the system requires a test bar that has a known flaw.
This test bar is the standard for the parts being tested. Therefore, if defects on the
test bar become visible, begin the process on the parts to be tested.
 SECTION B
ELECTRONIC INSPECTION
 Nondestructive testing
4- EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
• Eddy current inspection is a testing method that requires no part preparation.
• Eddy current inspection detect surface and subsurface flaws in most metals.
• Eddy current inspection is based on the principle of current acceptance.
The acceptance of material that induced eddy currents is determined by four
properties:
1. Its conductivity.
2. Permeability. the measure of its ability to accept lines of magnetic flux .
3. Its mass. If the probe passes over an area containing corrosion or some sort of
discontinuity the meter needle deflect s indicating a decrease in mass.
4. the presence of any voids or faults.

• Methods of eddy current

1- Absolute method of inspection.
2- Comparison method of inspection
 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
1- ABSOLUTE METHOD OF INSPECTION
In the absolute method of inspection, bridge-type eddy current equipment is used to
measuring the amount of probe current that flows when current is induced into a
test specimen.
 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
2- COMPARISON METHOD OF INSPECTION
the comparison method indicates differences in characteristics between the
material under the reference probe and that under the test probe.
 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
• Several eddy current instruments which use a two dimensional display, such as an
X-Y oscilloscope, are available without the limitations associated with the meter
type instrument. The two dimensional display allow the operator to analyze all the
information from the eddy current test
 Nondestructive Testing
5- ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
• Ultrasonic inspection is the only form that can be used on plastics,
ceramics, and most metals.
• It depends upon how sound is produced and transmitted,
• All sound is a product of vibration. When a body vibrates, it produces
sound waves these sound waves propagate longitudinally from the
source of vibration and are called longitudinal waves.
• A second type of wave propagation occurs at right angles to the
direction of the sound. and called transverse, or shear waves ,or
surface, or Rayleigh, waves.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
• PIEZOELECTRICITY Materials that produce electricity when they are struck,
pressed, bent, or otherwise distorted. are called piezoelectric materials and
producing current.
• piezoelectric materials vibrate when subjected to alternating current. These types
of materials useful as transducers for introducing physical vibrations into other
materials.
The transducer causes the test material to vibrate at the oscillator's frequency.
When the vibrations reach the other side of the material and bounce back they create
an electrical impulse at the transducer that is seen on the CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
display.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
ENERGY INTRODUCED INTO TEST MATERIAL
There are three basic ways in which ultrasonic energy is introduced into the test
specimen.
- The first is by direct contact on only one side of the material. The energy is
transmitted from this point and the return echo is received from the same side.
- The second method uses a transducer on both sides of the material; one
introduces a pulse into the material, and the other receives the signal and sends it
to the CRT.
- The third way of inducing sound energy into a material is the immersion method.
With this method, the test specimen is immersed in water and the transducer
beams its energy through the water to the test material's surface.
 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
FAULT INDICATIONS
Two basic systems are used in ultrasonic inspection.
-The pulse-echo system . a cathode ray oscilloscope is used in conjunction with a CRT
as a fault indicator.
-The resonance system. Used to measure the thickness of material.
 Nondestructive Testing
6- Radiographic inspection
• It is one of the most important methods of nondestructive inspection
it allows a photographic view inside the structure.
• This method uses certain sections of the electromagnetic spectrum
to photograph an object's interior needs little or no disassembly.
• X-ray.
• gamma ray.
*The electromagnetic waves have no electrical charge or mass, travel
in straight lines at the speed of light, and are able to penetrate
matter. The depth of penetration is dependent upon the ray's
energy.
 Radiographic inspection
GENERATION OF X-RAYS
• An x-ray generator consists of a tube containing a heavy insulating envelope.
• A coil at one end of the tube serves as a cathode that emits electrons when it is
heated with electrical current.
• At the other end of the tube is an anode on which a target is mounted.
• These electrons strike the target and dislodge electrons from the target.
 Radiographic inspection

CLASSIFICATION OF X-RAYS
• The intensity of the x-rays striking a film or fluorescent screen
is related to the distance between the film and the radiation
source.
• Low current gives low intensity while high current gives high
intensity.
• Low-energy x-rays are called soft x-rays and those with high
energy are called hard x-rays.
 Radiographic inspection

GAMMA RAYS
• Gamma rays consist of radiation energy produced by the
disintegration of very specific chemical elements known as isotopes.
• An isotope is a form of chemical element that has the same number
of protons as a normal atom, but a different number of neutrons.
• Gamma radiation is the most damaging type of radiation
encountered in aircraft maintenance since it penetrates deep into
the human body.
• gamma rays cannot be shut off, controlled, or directed. Therefore,
the equipment in which isotopes are kept must provide safe
radiation-proof storage.
 GAMMA RAYS

• A camera encased in heavy lead shielding holds the isotope

until it is needed to expose the film.
 Radiographic inspection

SET-UP AND EXPOSURE

The film is placed as close to the specimen as possible and the source
is oriented so that the radiation penetrates and passes an amount of
radiation proportional to the specimen's density.
Factors that determine the proper exposure include:-
1-Material thickness and density.
2-Shape and size of the object.
3-Type of defect to be detected.
4-Characteristics of the equipment used.
5-Exposure distance.
6-Exposure angle.
7-Film characteristics.
8-Types of intensifying screen, if used.
 Radiographic inspection
FILM
Photographic film is composed of flexible transparent plastic sheets coated with a thin
layer of gelatin.
This gelatin contains an emulsion of extremely fine silver bromide grains. When the
film is exposed to photons of energy, either visible light or radiation energy
photons, a latent image is formed on the film.
The exposed film is then treated with developer which reduces only the silver bromide
grains that were touched by the radiation into clumps of black metallic silver.
 Radiographic inspection
FLUOROSCOPY
fluoroscope is used For high-speed radiographic inspection where no
permanent record is required.
The main advantage of fluoroscopy
-The objects are viewed in real time
-The test specimen can be moved or rotated in front of the screen by
handling devices.
- Although fluoroscopy Allows you to inspect parts quickly and
effectively.
Fluoroscopy disadvantages.
- The equipment is bulky and not movable.
- A fluoroscope produces a dim image that is sometimes hard to read as
well as less capable of detecting small discontinuities.
- The equipment must be designed and constructed with special
attention to operator safety,
 sc o pe
flu o r o
od e r n
A m
 Radiographic inspection
RADIOGRAPHIC SAFETY PROCEDURES
Any form of radiation is harmful to the human body.
• cause blood and intestinal disorders. leukemia and cancer. Skin
damage and loss of hair.

SAFETY PROCEDURES
- The best shielding against radiation is a layer of lead.
- Persons working around x-ray or gamma ray equipment should wear
radiation monitoring film badges, or dosimeters.
- Access to areas where x-ray or gamma ray equipment is being used
should be controlled to prevent personnel from being exposed to
radiation energy.
- any container carrying radioactive material must display the symbol
for radioactive material.
 INSPECTING COMPOSITES
INSPECTING COMPOSITES
• Composite structures contain materials that sometimes
­times make nondestructive
testing difficult. like honeycomb structures However, a number of methods of NDT
are effective on composites.
• COIN TAP TEST
Although it is one of the most simple tests available, Undamaged material produces a solid
ringing sound, while a damaged area makes a hollow thud.
THERMOGRAPHY
Thermographs locates flaws in a part by measuring temperature variations at the part's
surface. A part is heated, and temperature differences are then measured with an infrared
camera or film.
• RADIOGRAPHY
Although x-rays are not effective on certain bonded structures, other types of radiographic
inspection can detect surface cracks and internal damage on many composite structures. In
particular, radiography can detect water inside honeycomb core cells.
• LASER HOLOGRAPHY
the part is heated and then photographed using a laser light source and a special camera
system. Laser holography can detect disbands, entrapped water, and impact damage in a
variety of composites.