TESTING OF MATERIALS

OBJECTIVES
To know
• Different NDT methods
• Basic principle of various types of NDT
• Testing procedures
• Standards & codes
• How to interpret the indications
 WHAT IS NDT ?
‘NDT’ stands for non-destructive testing. In other
words it is a way of testing without destroying.
Definition:
“NDT may be defined as the science of examining
materials or manufactured articles in order to
determine their fitness for certain purposes
without impairment of the desirable properties”.
• NDT:
– does not alter the structure or appearance of the
component
– used to ensure the quality, right from raw material
stage through fabrication and processing to pre-service
and in-service inspection
– makes the component more reliable, safe & economical.
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

“A powerful tool to evaluate

component’s quality to ensure
safety and reliability”
 INTRODUCTION
• NDT plays an important role not only in Quality
Checking of the finished products & also during
various stages of manufacturing
• NDTs:
– applied to the components to determine their
suitability for the service conditions to which they will
be subjected.
– extremely useful in revealing defects
• The components, if found satisfactory, can be used
for which they are made.
• No single NDT method works for all defects. Each
method has advantages & disadvantages when
compared to other methods.
 BENEFITS OF NDT
• To ensure product reliability.

• To prevent accidents, save human life and property

i e, safety in service

• To ensure customer’s satisfaction.

• 100% direct testing on components is possible.

 WHY NDT FOR IR ?
• Presence of harmful defects in railway
component results in crack initiation and
propagation

• Train accident, derailments, service dislocation

and damage to Rolling Stocks and track occur

• NDT, hence obvious choice for quality

assurance and preventive maintenance in
Indian Railways
 CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS DETECTED BY NDT
• Inherent defects (introduced during production)
• Processing defects (introduced during
processing)
• Service defects (introduced during sevice)
• Types of defects which may exist in these three
are:
– Crack, blow hole, porosity, tear, lamination, lack of
bond, inclusion, pipe, seam, lap, shrinkage, pitting
etc.
 APPLICATION OF NDT
Can be applied to:
• Electric locomotive: co-co bogies, axles,
armature shafts, suspension bearings, etc
• Diesel locomotive: fabricated and cast bogies,
axles, pistons, crank shafts, magnet frames,
gears, pinions, inlet and exhaust valves, etc
• Coaching stock: axles, bogies, wheels, tyres,
springs, etc
• Wagon stock: axles, casnub bogies, springs,
wheels, etc.
• P. Way: rails, rail welds, points, crossings, etc
• Bridges: girder, bearings, etc.
 VOLUME OF NDT ACTIVITIES OF IR
• Entire 1,00,000 km of track examined by UST
at least once in 6 months
• Over 9 lakhs rail welds examined every year
• Approximately 8,68,725 axles examined
ultrasonically every year
• Over 2500 bogies and 100 bridge girders
radiographed every year
• In addition to the above, a large number of
railway components are tested by NDT
technique
 DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES: NDT
There are large no. of NDT methods for testing of
materials. The five ‘Big methods’ used all over Indian
Railways are:
• Visual examination (VE)
• Liquid Penetration Test (LPT/LPI)-
– Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT/DPE/RDP)
– Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Inspection (Zyglo testing)
– Chalk kerosene testing (now not in use)
• Magnetic particle inspection test (MPI/MPT/MPE)
• Radiography inspection-
– X-Ray
– γ –Ray
• Ultrasonic testing
 NDT PERSONNEL
• Responsible to certify the quality & reliability
• Should have adequate knowledge about the
nature of material, processing methods and
service conditions
• Interpretation of response needs concept clarity
• Therefore,
– NDT personnel should be trained & retrained
– Should have higher academic qualification
 VISUAL
EXAMINATION
 INTRODUCTION
• Very important, though neglected by many
NDT personnel.
• Simplest, cheapest, oldest & probably the
most widely used NDT method.
• Easy to apply & quickly carried out.
• Detects a variety of surface defects, such as
crack, corrosion, surface finish, welds, solder
connection, adhesive bonds, seals, etc.
 INTRODUCTION
• Should not be ignored & bypassed.
• A good & careful V.E. can detect about 80 –
90% of the surface defects before they are
found by more expensive testing methods.
• An adequate illumination is essential for visual
observation. Mirror & flash light can be used
to inspect defects at inaccessible location.
• Low power magnifying glasses are helpful in
detecting minute flaws
 BASIC PRINCIPLE:VISUAL EXAMINATION
• The basic procedure used in visual examination
involves illumination of the test specimen with
light in the visible region
• Equipment required for visual inspection is
extremely simple
• Surface of the specimen should be cleaned
before being inspected.
• Examined with eye or light sensitive devices
 DEFECTS THAT CAN BE DETECTED BY
UNAIDED VISUAL INSPECTION

• Presence or absence of oxide film or corrosion

product on the surface
• Presence or absence of cracks, orientation of
cracks and position of cracks relative to
various zones in case of welds
• The surface defect of welds
 OPTICAL AIDS USED FOR VISUAL
INSPECTION
Use of optical instruments is beneficial

• Defects that can not be detected by the

unaided eye
• Permit visual checks of areas not accessible to
the unaided eye.
• Magnifier, Mirror are commonly used.
BRUSH & MAGNIFYING LENS
 INTRODUCTION: LPT/LPI
• Most widely used NDT
• The technique is based on the ability of
surface discontinuities to drawn liquid by
capillary action & blotting out coloured or
fluorescent dye from the flaw
• It produces a flaw indication that is much
larger and easier for the eye to detect than
the flaw itself.
 PRINCIPLE OF LPT/LPI
PRINCIPLE:
“Liquid penetrant is applied to the
cleaned component surface which
penetrates along the crack by capillary
action, thin layer of developer is then
applied in order to make the cracks
easily visible by blotting action”.
 PRINCIPLE OF LPT/LPI
The liquid penetrates along the crack by
capillary action based on Rideal’s law:-
L² = t(γ/2η). cosΦ
Where, L- the distance travelled by the liquid
t - time taken
γ - surface tension
η - viscosity of the liquid
Φ - wetting angle
√γ/2η- penetration coefficient. If it is
higher, better the rate of penetration
 TYPES OF LPT
• Dye penetrant test(DPT/RDP):
– Uses visible dye
– Viewed under normal light
• Zyglo test:
– Uses fluorescent dye(water washable)
– Viewed under UV light
• Chalk test:
– Uses chalk & kerosene
– Viewed under normal light
 TYPES OF PENETRANT
• Fluorescent Penetrants:
– They contain a dye or several dyes which shows
fluorescent properties when exposed to
ultraviolet radiation
– more sensitive than visible penetrant systems
because eyes are more sensitive to the glow of
the fluorescing indication
• Visible Penetrants:
– they contain a red dye that provides high contrast
against the white developer background
– visible penetrant do not require a darkened
area and an UV light
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A PENETRANT
It must:
• spread easily over the surface of the material to
provide complete & even coverage.
• be drawn into surface defects by capillary action.
• remain in the defect but remove easily from the
surface of the part.
• remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the
surface of the part by blotting action
• be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce
easy to see indications.
• not be harmful to the material being tested or
the inspector.
APPLICATION OF PENETRANT
 APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER
Wet developer:
• can be either solvent base or water base
• can be applied even when the surface is still
damp to the touch
• applied with a pressurized spray
Dry developer:
• applied in powder form only after the surface
is dry
 ROLE OF DEVELOPER
• Pulls the trapped penetrant out of defects and
spread it out on the surface of the part so it can
be seen by an inspector
• Developers with visible penetrants create a
white background so there is a greater degree of
contrast between indication and surrounding
background.
• Developers used with fluorescent penetrants
both reflect and refract the incident UV light,
allowing more of it to interact with the
penetrant, causing more efficient fluorescence.
 DEVELOPER QUALITY CONTROL
• Dry developer powder should be checked
daily to ensure that it is fluffy and not caked &
granulated
• Should be free from specks of fluorescent
penetrant material from previous inspection
• When using the developer, a light coat is
applied by immersing the test component or
dusting the surface
• After the development time, excessive powder
can be removed gently by blowing on the
surface with air
 SURFACE INSPECTION
• After applying the developer, the surface
is inspected for flaws.
• The inspection is done either by normal
light or artificial white light to detect
indications from any flaws
• Proper interpretation is learnt by
experience
SURFACE INSPECTION
SURFACE INSPECTION
SURFACE INSPECTION
 LIGHTING QUALITY CONTROL
• The lighting requirements are different using a
visible dye penetrant & a fluorescent dye
penetrant
For Visible Dye Penetrant Inspections:
• Natural daylight changes from time to time,
the use of artificial lighting is recommended to
get better uniformity.
• Artificial lighting should be white whenever
possible (halogen lamps are most commonly
used).
 LIGHTING QUALITY CONTROL
Lighting for Fluorescent Penetrant Inspections:
• Fluorescent penetrant dyes are excited by UV
and emit visible light in the yellow-green
range between 520 and 580 nm
• The source of UV light is often a mercury arc
lamp with a filter
• The lamp emits many wavelengths and a filter
is used to remove all except UV.
• light should never be used with a cracked
filter.
DYE PENETRANT TEST
DPT/RDP/DPE
 DYE PENETRANT TEST
• A method to detect surface discontinueties
such as:
– Crack
– Shrinkage
– blow holes, porosities, pin-holes
– Seams
– Cold shuts, etc.
Application: Ferrous, non-ferrous and also
other materials such as plastics, glass,
ceramics, glasses, rubber etc.
 TESTING PROCEDURE
Involves the following basic steps:
BASIC STEPS:-
• Surface preparation
• Application of penetrant
• Dwelling time
• Removal of excess penetrant
• Application of developer
• Surface inspection
• Post cleaning
 SURFACE PREPARATION
• The most critical steps
• All coatings, such as paints, varnishes, plating
and contaminants such as oil, grease, water,
dirt, heavy oxides etc. must be removed
• They should be removed by cleaning agents
such as:
– Acetone
– Perchloro ethylene
– Methylene chloride, etc.
 DIRTY SURFACE

Presence of surface contaminants

 SURFACE PREPARATION
• If the parts have been machined, sanded, or
blasted prior to the penetrant inspection, it is
possible that a thin layer of metal may have
smeared across the surface and may close the
defects
• Parts to be tested is thoroughly dried after
cleaning because any liquid residue will hinder
the flow of penetrant into the cracks
CLEANED SURFACE

Cleaned surface
 APPLICATION OF PENETRANT
• The main feature of DPT: Visibility of indication
• The liquid penetrant contains a colour dye (usually
brilliant red in colour) which is easily visible in the
white light.
• Applied to the cleaned surface by:
– Spraying
– Swabbing
– Brushing
– Dipping
• Most effective method is spraying.
• For general application penetrants are available in
convenient spray can.
DPT KIT
APPLICATION OF PENETRANT
 DYE PENETRANT TEST

Flow of liquid penetrant into a flaw that has reached the surface
 DWELLING TIME
• The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as
much penetrant as possible to be drawn from a defect.
Penetrant Dwelling time: “The period of time during which the
penetrant is permitted to remain on the surface”.
Dwelling time:
• The minimum time required to enter the penetrant into defects is
determined by the following:
– Manufacturer’s recommendation
– Type of defects expected
– Type of material tested
– Temp of the specimen
– Humidity of the environment
• Tight crack may require as high as 30 mts where gross defects may
require 3-5 mts
• The exact time has to be determined by trial & error method
 REMOVAL OF EXCESS PENETRANT
• After sufficient dwell time, the excess
penetrant from the surface is to be removed
by using clean clothes moist with solvent. This
has to be done without disturbing any
penetrant which has entered into the
discontinuities.
• The component is then allowed to dry by
normal evaporation.
REMOVAL OF EXCESS PENETRANT
 APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER
• After the excess penetrant has been removed,
thin layer of developer is applied to pull the
trapped penetrant back to the surface
• The developer draws the penetrant out from
each side of the openings by reverse capillary
action.
• After a short time, indications appear in the
developer which are wider than defect and
therefore, can be seen directly in normal light
due to enhancement of the contrast between
the penetrant and the developer.
APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER
 APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER

Penetrant absorbed
in developer

Schematic representation of
blotting action of the developer
 SURFACE INSPECTION
• After applying the
developer, the surface is
inspected for flaws
either by normal light
or artificial white light
to detect indications
from any flaws Indication is viewed
under visible light
 POST CLEANING
• Done immediately after inspection to
avoid adhesion of the developer to the
surface of the component.
• Carried out by suitable technique such
as:
– simple water rinsing
– m/c washing, etc.
 ADVANTAGE
• Highly sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.
• It can be used to inspect almost any material:
– Metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and non-
magnetic & conductive and non conductive provided
that the surface is not extremely rough or porous.
• Materials of large surface areas & large volumes
of material can be inspected rapidly at low cost.
• Parts with complex geometric shapes can be
routinely inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface
of the part providing a visual image of the
discontinuity.
• Equipment investment is minimal.
 LIMITATION
• Can detect only those imperfections that are open
to the surface
• Materials with nonporous surface can only be
inspected.
• Requires post cleaning of acceptable parts or
materials.
• Requires multiple operations under controlled
conditions.
• Chemical handling precautions are necessary
(toxicity, fire, waste).
 APPLICATION
• Piston •Valve insert
• Connecting rod •Cam bush housing,
•Exhaust manifold
• Inlet & exhaust valves
•Radiator fan blade
• Gear •S- pipe
• Co-Co bogie •Water riser pipe
• Roller bearings •Expr Lub/oil pump
• Camshaft •Cam gear
•Split gear, etc
• Crankshaft
• Cylinder head
 HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Chemical Safety:
• Some of the penetrant materials are flammable
& be used and stored in small quantities
• They should only be used in a well ventilated
area and ignition sources avoided.
• Eye protective equipments to be worn to
prevent contact of the chemicals
 HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Ultraviolet Light Safety:
• Too much exposure of UV is harmful to the
skin and eyes.
• Skin and eye damage occurs at wavelengths
around 320 nm and shorter
• UV lamps with proper filter be in safe place
and in good condition.
 INTRODUCTION
• Zyglo is the registered trade mark of “Magnaflux
Corporation”
• Works effectively on a variety of ferrous and non-
ferrous materials such as:
– Aluminum, Magnesium, Brass, Copper, Titanium, Bronze,
Stainless steel, cast iron, Non-magnetic alloys, Ceramics,
Plastic, Glass
• Can be used:
– both for ferrous & non- ferrous castings/rollings/forgings
etc.
– to determine cracks, etc in welded structures
– A quick and accurate process for locating surface flaws
such as:
• shrinkage cracks, Porosity, Cold shuts, fatigue cracks,
Grinding cracks, heat treatment cracks, seams, forging laps,
forging bursts, etc
 TESTING PROCEDURE
Essential steps-
• Surface preparation
• Application of penetrant
• Cleaning in running water
• Heating the component
• Application of Developer
• Observation
 SURFACE PREPARATION
• Surface of the component to be free from
paint, oil, grease, acids, water, dirt, etc & to be
removed by suitable cleaning agents
• Parts to be tested is thoroughly dried after
cleaning because any liquid residue will hinder
the flow of penetrant into the cracks.
• Sand blasting, shot blasting, wire brushing &
metal scrapping are not recommended
because they may close the discontinuities.
 APPLICATION OF PENETRANT
• Water washable fluoroscent
penetrant is applied on the
surface of the component
either by:
– Dipping
– Spraying or
– Brushing
• The component is kept in
the penetrant for 15 – 30
mts.
 WATER WASHABLE: PENETRANTS

• Penetrants contain an emulsifying agent

(detergent) that makes it possible to wash the
penetrant from the part surface with water
alone
 CLEANING IN RUNNING WATER
• Wipe out the excess penetrant from the
surface
• After that the component is washed with
water spray.
 PENETRANT REMOVAL PROCESS
• Penetrant to be removed from the surface of
the part with a simple water rinse.
– may be removed from the object surface
 HEATING THE COMPONENT

• The component is then dried in a oven

maintained at 700C for sometime. Temp should
not exceed 830C
 APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER
• The dry developer is then sprinkled
throughout the surface of the component.
• After sometime the excess developer is then
removed by using soft wire brush.
• The developer acts like a blotter to draw
penetrant out of the crack & enlarges the size
of the area of penetrant indication
 OBSERVATION
• The surface is viewed under ultraviolet ray or
black light. Ultraviolet/black light causes
penetrant to glow in dark
• Since fluoroscemt penetrant inspection is
performed in dark environment & the excited
dyes emit brilliant Yellow-Green light that
contracts strongly against dark back ground
• Y-G fluoroscent was choosen because the human
eye reacts best to these colours
SURFACE INSPECTION
SURFACE INSPECTION
SURFACE INSPECTION
 CHALK & OIL TEST
• Very old process
• Applicable to those fields where DPT or Zyglo is
not available
Procedure:
• The surface is cleaned by kerosene
• Chalk solution is applied
• After chalk coating dries up, the component is
lightly hammered
• Due to capillary action, kerosene which has gone
to the defect, comes out & wets the coating
indicating the location & size of defects
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE
INSPECTION TEST
(MAGNAFLUX TESTING)
 INTRODUCTION
• One of the most widely utilized NDT methods
• Very simple, easy, highly sensitive to detect
surface or subsurface cracks (below surface up to
6 mm deep) in ferro- magnetic material such as
steel, iron, cobalt, nickel & some of their alloys
• Deeper subsurface defects are not satisfactorily
detected because influence of the distorted lines
of magnetic flux on the magnetic particles spread
over the job surface becomes weaker with the
distance, so that sensitivity falls away with the
depth
• Defects located on the surface appear as sharp
and distinct lines whereas subsurface defects
appear as irregular & rough indications.
 INTRODUCTION
• Applied to:
– Finished components
– Billets
– Hot rolled bars
– Forgings
– Castings, etc
• Can also be used to check processing operations:
– Machining
– Grinding
– Heat treatment
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION TEST
 PRINCIPLE
“Magnetic particle testing is based on the principle that
when the material under test is magnetized, magnetic
lines of force is created. Any defect in the material will
set up magnetic poles as well as leakage field. The
presence of leakage field (therefore the presence of
defect) is detected by use of ferromagnetic fine
particles applied over the surface which tend to be
attracted at these leakage fields and pile up over such
defects.”
CUT AND FUSED BAR MAGNET ILLUSTRATING
OPPOSITE POLARITY
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION TEST
The magnetic fields spread out when it encounters
the small air gap created by the crack because the
air can not support as much magnetic field as the
magnet can.

Leakage field around defects

 STEPS OF TESTING
• Surface preparation
• Magnetization of the component under test
• Application of magnetic ink over the surface
• Interpretation of the surface for powder
patterns or indications
• Demagnetization
• Post cleaning
SURFACE PREPARATION
 SURFACE PREPARATION
• Heavy built-up of paints, rusts, grease,
excess scales, ripples, slag etc are to be
cleaned.
•

DIRTY SURFACE CLEANED SURFACE

 MAGNETIZATION OF THE
COMPONENT UNDER TEST
 MAGNETIZATION OF THE COMPONENT
Two general types of magnetic fields that can be
established within a component:
• Longitudinal: it has magnetic lines of force that run
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the part
• Circular: it has magnetic lines of force that run
circumferentially around the perimeter of the part
MAGNETIZATION OF THE COMPONENT
Magnetic field is set up in the test piece in any
of the following ways:
– By passing electric current directly through all or
part of the test specimen
• Both AC & DC are suitable for magnetising parts. AC
should not be used for detecting subsurface defects
– By passing electric current through a conductor
surrounding the specimen
– By magnets
* The primary difference between the two currents (AC
& DC) is the fields generated by DC penetrate the cross
section of the part & the field generated by the AC is
confined to the metal at or near the surface of the
part. Therefore, AC should not be used for subsurface
discontinuities.
MPI EQUIPMENT
APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC INK
 APPLYING THE MAGNETIC INK
• The particles used in magnetic ink (Key ingredient)
should be finely divided ferromagnetic materials [milled
pcs of iron oxide high magnetic permeability & low
retentivity & bonded with pigment to their surfaces to
give the particles colour (black or brown)]. Particle
mean size shall be 6 µm & shape can be a mixture of
roughly spherical & columnar.
• High permeability (component with low C-steel) is imp
because it makes the particles attract easily to small
leakage field from flaws
• Low retentivity is imp because the
particles themselves never become
strongly magnetised so they do not
stick to each other or surface of the part MAGNETIC POWDER
 APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC INK
•Magnetic particle while the magnetic field is
present or while the current is flowing through the
material.
•Application of dry powder should be such that it
settles gently in a fine dispersion on the material
surface.
•Dry powder is very sensitive towards subsurface &
Dry Particle Inspection
tiny flaws.
•Magnetic particles suspended in water [(less
expensive, no fire hazard, no petrochemical fumes
& formulated with corrosion inhibitors)] or
kerosene (superior corrosion protection) is more
useful because the suspension provides the particle
with more mobility. It also makes easy to apply the Wet Suspension
particles uniformly to a relatively large area. Inspection
•Both visible & fluoroscent particles (coated with
pigments that fluoresce when exposed to UV light)
can be used
INTERPRETATION OF THE SURFACE
FOR POWDER PATTERNS OR
INDICATIONS
 OBSERVATION
• The magnetic particle indications are observed in visible
light or ultraviolet ray/black light depending on the
process followed
• The powder is accumulated around the defects, if any
DEMAGNETISATION
 DEMAGNETISATION
• Since all ferromagnetic materials possess
retentivity, there will be certain amount of
residual magnetism depending on the
magnetizing current & its strength.
• Essentials for components to use in bearings etc.
where pick up of iron particles cause damage to
the part.
• Done by passing the component through an AC
field of gradually reducing current or by
periodically reversing and reducing the DC
Current.
 CLEANING
• When the test is completed, the components
are cleaned of the magnetic powder particles.
• It may be done by:
– use of air
– wiping etc
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:
• Large surface areas of complex parts can be inspected rapidly.
• Can detect surface and subsurface flaws.
• Surface preparation is less critical than it is in penetrant
inspection.
• Magnetic particle indications are produced directly on the surface
of the part and form an image of the discontinuity.
• Equipment costs are relatively low.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Only ferromagnetic materials can be inspected.
• Proper alignment of magnetic field and defect is critical.
• Large currents are needed for very large parts.
• Requires relatively smooth surface.
• Paint or other nonmagnetic coverings adversely affect sensitivity.
• Demagnetization and post cleaning is usually necessary.
 APPLICATION
• Spring
• Crank shaft
• Cam shaft
• Equalizing beam
• Bolts
• Roller
• Bearings
• Piston rod
• Bars
• Reclaimed welded items
THANK YOU