Electromagnetic

radiation
Definition of electromagnetic radiation
• Electromagnetic = the process of formation of a free
electromagnetic field
• Radiation = used to denote the radiated electromagnetic field itself

• So in physics electromagnetic radiation is regarded as the emission of

electromagnetic waves by electric charge that are moving under acceleration
(current)

• Electromagnetic radiation is emitted in discrete units known as photons that travel

at the speed of light as electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic energy is classified
by increasing energy or decreasing wavelength into radio waves, microwaves,
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma-rays (Figure 1).
• Electromagnetic radiation (often
abbreviated E-M radiation or EMR) is a form
of energy exhibiting wave-like behavior as it
travels through space. EMR has both electric
and magnetic field components,
which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each
other and perpendicular to the direction of
energy propagation.
• Electromagnetic radiation is classified according
to the frequency of its wave. In order of
increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength,
these are radio waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-
rays and gamma rays. The eyes of
various organisms sense a small and somewhat
variable window of frequencies called the visible
spectrum. The photon is the quantum of the
electromagnetic interaction and the basic "unit" of
light and all other forms of electromagnetic
radiation and is also the force carrier for the
electromagnetic force. EM radiation
carries energy and momentum that may be
imparted to matter with which it interacts.
 THEORY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
• Shows the relative wavelengths of the
electromagnetic waves of three different colors
of light (blue, green and red) with a distance
scale in micrometres along the x-axis.
• The theory that prove electromagnetic radiation:

Classical radiation theory (Maxwell`s theory) the

theory of electromagnetic radiation was
developed by James Clerk Maxwell and
published in 1865. He showed that the speed
of propagation of electromagnetic radiation
should be identical with that of light , about
186,000 mi (300,000 km) per second
• James Clerk Maxwell first formally
postulated electromagnetic waves. These were
subsequently confirmed by Heinrich Hertz. Maxwell
derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations,
thus uncovering the wave-like nature of electric and
magnetic fields, and their symmetry. Because the speed of
EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with
the measured speed of light, Maxwell concluded
that light itself is an EM wave.
• According to Maxwell's equations, a time-varying electric
field generates a time-varying magnetic field and vice versa.
Therefore, as an oscillating electric field generates an
oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic field in turn
generates an oscillating electric field, and so on. These
oscillating fields together form a propagating
electromagnetic wave.
• A quantum theory of the interaction between
electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is
described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics.
The propagation direction of a light
wave

V=EXB

RIGHT- HAND SCREW

RULE
 Electromagnetic wave
• Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a
self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of
electric and magnetic fields. This diagram
shows a plane linearly polarized wave
propagating from right to left. The electric
field is in a vertical plane and the magnetic
field in a horizontal plane.
• The physics of electromagnetic radiation
is electrodynamics. Electromagnetism is the physical phenomenon
associated with the theory of electrodynamics. Electric and magnetic
fields obey the properties of superposition. Thus, a field due to any
particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field
contributes to the fields present ing the same space due to other
causes. Further, as they are vector fields, all magnetic and electric
field vectors add together according to vector addition. For example,
in optics two or more coherent lightwaves may interact and by
constructive or destructive interference yield a resultant irradiance
deviating from the sum of the component irradiances of the individual
lightwaves.
• Since light is an oscillation it is not affected by travelling through static
electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However
in nonlinear media, such as some crystals, interactions can occur between
light and static electric and magnetic fields — these interactions include
the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect.

• n refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of

different density alters its speed and direction upon entering the new
medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the
degree of refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law. Light disperses into
a visible spectrum as light passes through a prism because of the
wavelength dependent refractive index of the prism material (Dispersion
• EM radiation exhibits both wave properties
and particle properties at the same time (see wave-
particle duality). Both wave and particle characteristics
have been confirmed in a large number of experiments.
Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM
radiation is measured over relatively large timescales
and over large distances while particle characteristics
are more evident when measuring small timescales and
distances. For example, when electromagnetic radiation
is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be
more obvious when the average number of photons in
the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller
than 1. Upon absorption of light, it is not too difficult to
experimentally observe non-uniform deposition of
energy. Strictly speaking, however, this alone is not
evidence of "particulate" behavior of light, rather it
reflects the quantum nature of matter
• There are experiments in which the wave and
particle natures of electromagnetic waves
appear in the same experiment, such as the
self-interference of a
single photon.True single-photon experiments
(in a quantum optical sense) can be done today
in undergraduate-level labs.[2] When a single
photon is sent through an interferometer, it
passes through both paths, interfering with
itself, as waves do, yet is detected by
a photomultiplier or other sensitive detector
only once.
 Particle Model
• Because energy of an EM interaction is quantized, EM waves are
emitted and absorbed as discrete packets of energy, or quanta,
called photons. Because photons are emitted and absorbed by
charged particles, they act as transporters of energy, and are
associated with waves with frequency proportional to the energy
carried. The energy per photon can be related to the frequency via
the Planck–Einstein equation:[4]
• where E is the energy, h is Planck's constant, and f is frequency. The
energy is commonly expressed in the unit of electronvolt (eV). This
photon-energy expression is a particular case of the energy levels of
the more general electromagnetic oscillator, whose average energy,
which is used to obtain Planck's radiation law, can be shown to
differ sharply from that predicted by the equipartition principle at
low temperature, thereby establishes a failure of equipartition due to
quantum effects at low temperature.
• As a photon is absorbed by an atom,
it excites the atom, elevating an electron to a
higher energy level. If the energy is great
enough, so that the electron jumps to a high
enough energy level, it may escape the positive
pull of the nucleus and be liberated from the
atom in a process called photoionisation.
Conversely, an electron that descends to a lower
energy level in an atom emits a photon of light
equal to the energy difference. Since the energy
levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each
element emits and absorbs its own characteristic
frequencies.
• Together, these effects explain the emission and absorption
spectra of light. The dark bands in the absorption spectrum are
due to the atoms in the intervening medium absorbing
different frequencies of the light. The composition of the
medium through which the light travels determines the nature
of the absorption spectrum. For instance, dark bands in the
light emitted by a distant star are due to the atoms in the star's
atmosphere. These bands correspond to the allowed energy
levels in the atoms. A similar phenomenon occurs
for emission. As the electrons descend to lower energy levels,
a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the
energy levels of the electrons. This is manifested in
the emission spectrum of nebulae. Today, scientists use this
phenomenon to observe what elements a certain star is
composed of. It is also used in the determination of the
distance of a star, using the red shift.
SPEED OF PROPAGATION
•Any electric charge which accelerates, or any changing magnetic
field, produces electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic
information about the charge travels at the speed of light. Accurate
treatment thus incorporates a concept known as retarded time (as
opposed to advanced time, which is not physically possible in light
ofcausality), which adds to the expressions for the
electrodynamic electric field and magnetic field. These extra terms
are responsible for electromagnetic radiation. When any wire (or
other conducting object such as an antenna) conducts alternating
current, electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same
frequency as the electric current. At the quantum level,
electromagnetic radiation is produced when the wavepacket of a
charged particle oscillates or otherwise accelerates. Charged
particles in a stationary state do not move, but a superposition of
such states may result in oscillation, which is responsible for the
phenomenon of radiative transition between quantum states of a
charged particle.
• Depending on the circumstances, electromagnetic radiation may behave as
a wave or as particles. As a wave, it is characterized by a velocity
(the speed of light),wavelength, and frequency. When considered as
particles, they are known as photons, and each has an energy related to the
frequency of the wave given by Planck'srelation E = hν, where E is the
energy of the photon, h = 6.626 × 10−34 J·s is Planck's constant, and ν is the
frequency of the wave.

• One rule is always obeyed regardless of the circumstances: EM radiation in

a vacuum always travels at the speed of light, relative to the observer,
regardless of the observer's velocity. (This observation led to Albert
Einstein's development of the theory of special relativity.)

• In a medium (other than vacuum), velocity factor or refractive index are

considered, depending on frequency and application. Both of these are
ratios of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum.
Thermal radiation and
electromagnetic radiation as a form
of heat
• The basic structure of matter involves charged particles bound together in many
different ways. When electromagnetic radiation is incident on matter, it causes the
charged particles to oscillate and gain energy. The ultimate fate of this energy
depends on the situation. It could be immediately re-radiated and appear as
scattered, reflected, or transmitted radiation. It may also get dissipated into other
microscopic motions within the matter, coming tothermal equilibrium and
manifesting itself as thermal energy in the material. With a few exceptions such
as fluorescence, harmonic generation,photochemical reactions and the photovoltaic
effect, absorbed electromagnetic radiation simply deposits its energy by heating the
material. This happens both for infrared and non-infrared radiation. Intense radio
waves can thermally burn living tissue and can cook food. In addition to
infrared lasers, sufficiently intense visible and ultraviolet lasers can also easily set
paper afire. Ionizing electromagnetic radiation can create high-speed electrons in a
material and break chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times
with other atoms in the material eventually most of the energy gets downgraded to
thermal energy, this whole process happening in a tiny fraction of a second. That
infrared radiation is a form of heat and other electromagnetic radiation is not, is a
widespread misconception in physics. Any electromagnetic radiation can heat a
material when it is absorbed.
• The inverse or time-reversed process of absorption is
responsible for thermal radiation. Much of the thermal
energy in matter consists of random motion of charged
particles, and this energy can be radiated away from the
matter. The resulting radiation may subsequently be
absorbed by another piece of matter, with the deposited
energy heating the material. Radiation is an important
mechanism of heat transfer.
• The electromagnetic radiation in an opaque cavity at
thermal equilibrium is effectively a form of thermal
energy, having maximum radiation entropy.
Thethermodynamic potentials of electromagnetic
radiation can be well-defined as for matter. Thermal
radiation in a cavity has energy density .
 Types of Electromagnetic Wave

• Light, microwaves, x-rays, and TV and

radio transmissions are all kinds of
electromagnetic waves. They are all the
same kind of wavy disturbance that
repeats itself over a distance called the
wavelength.
• Electromagnetic waves can be described in
terms of three basic parameters:
1.Velocity (c)
2.Wavelength (λ)
3.Frequency (f)
• The following relationship exists between the
above three parameters:
• λf = c = 3.8 x108m/sec
• Where λ is in metres and f is in hertz.
• Electromagnetic radiation effects approach in
a wide range of wavelengths. This
electromagnetic radiation range is broken
behind aware keen on a numeral of dissimilar
group, every of that divide definite
possessions.
Wave  Wavelength  Radiation Uses
Long Wave Radio 1500 m Broadcasting

ave Radio 300 m Broadcasting

Short Wave Radio 25 m Broadcasting

FM Radio 3m Broadcasting and communication

UHF Radio 30 cm TV transmissions

Microwaves 3 cm Communication
Infra red 3 mm Communication in optical fibres

Light 200 - 600 nm Seeing

Ultra violet 100 nm Sterilising
X-ray 5 nm Shadow pictures of bones

Gamma rays <0.01 nm Scientific research

Long radio waves:
That include the deprived occurrence with uses of
wavelength at times contain occurrence smaller
amount than 1 Hertz with wavelengths during
surplus of 1 kilometre.
• Short radio waves:
That have privileged occurrence with also minute
wavelength. Frequently uses in extremely short-
range broadcasting communication.
Microwaves:                  
• That is difficult event influence hypocritical
approximately among broadcasting with infrared
waves.
Infrared radiation:
That radiation is the part of the electromagnetic
spectrum use immediately under scarlet beam
within conditions of occurrence.
•  
• Ultraviolet light:
• That is further than violet beam during situation
of occurrence. Its major use of organization is the
sun also further leading light. It is formed through
electric-curve light for technological function.
Different Types of Radiation:
X rays:
That also recognized are divided keen on two categories:
soft also hard X rays. Soft X rays consist of lengthy
wavelengths and are quicker to the ultraviolet group of
the spectrum. Hard X rays are faster toward the
gamma-ray collection of the spectrum with comprising
a lot undersized wavelengths.
• Gamma rays:
• That is the small wavelength, high event category of
electromagnetic energy. They are fundamentally uses
equal toward X rays during their consequence,
excluding are formed through energized basis as a
substitute of internal electrons.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Application of ER in remote
sensing:
• An Ideal remote sensing system shown in
Figure 1, consists of the following basic
stages:
1.Electromagnetic energy source
2.Energy propagation
3.Energy interaction\Return signal
4.Recording
5.Supply of information in the desired form.
Figure 1: Remote Sensing System
• The source of energy produces electromagnetic
energy and it propagates from the source to a
homogeneous target.
• In ideal case, produced electromagnetic energy
contains all wavelengths and there is no loss of
energy during propagation.
• When the energy interacts with the target,
depending upon the characteristics of the target,
the energy is transmitted, absorbed scattered
emitted, or reflected from the target to the sensor.
• The energy from the target to the sensor is in the
form of return signal, reaching a linear sensor
which responds linearly to electromagnetic energy
of all wavelengths and intensity. The return signal
is recorded and processes in real time by the data
recorder. The data is then processed into a format
which is useful for interpretation. T
• he information about the target collected is made
available to the users in the desired form.
 Radar
• Radar, like sonar and seismology, uses a
man-made pulse of radio energy to map
distance based on the length of time it takes
the pulse to return from the source.
• Radar (short for "Radio Detection and
Ranging"), which can be airborne or
spaceborne, has greatly changed the way we
see the land and ocean surfaces.
• Radar is based on the principle of sending very long
wavelength radiation (called microwaves) from an
antenna, and then detecting that energy after it bounces
off a remote target.
• The wavelength of the microwave, its polarization
(vertical or horizontal orientation) and strength can be
controlled at the source and measured when it returns.
• Many common land-cover types and materials affect the
polarity and strength of the radar return differently, which
helps in their identification
 Electromagnetic radiation and health
• Electromagnetic radiation can be classified
into ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation,
based on whether it is capable of ionizing atoms
and breaking chemical bonds. Ultraviolet and
higher frequencies, such as X-rays or gamma
rays are ionizing. These pose their own special
hazards: see radiation and radiation poisoning.
• Non-ionizing radiation, discussed here, is
associated with two major potential hazards:
electrical and biological. Additionally,
induced electric current caused by radiation can
generate sparks and create a fire or explosive
hazard.
 Types of hazards
• the oscillating electric and magnetic fields in
electromagnetic radiation will induce an electric
current in any conductor through which it passes.
Strong radiation can induce current capable of
delivering an electric shock to persons or animals. It
can also overload and destroy electrical equipment.
The induction of currents by oscillating magnetic fields
is also the way in which solar storms disrupt the
operation of electrical and electronic systems, causing
damage to and even the explosion of power
distribution transformers,[1] blackouts (as in 1989), and
interference with electromagnetic signals (e.g. radio,
TV, and telephone signals).[2]
• Fire hazards
• Extremely high power electromagnetic radiation can cause
electric currents strong enough to create sparks (electrical
arcs) when an induced voltage exceeds the breakdown
voltage of the surrounding medium (e.g. air). These sparks
can then ignite flammable materials or gases, possibly leading
to an explosion.
• This can be a particular hazard in the vicinity
of explosives or pyrotechnics, since an electrical overload
might ignite them. This risk is commonly referred to
as HERO (Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to
Ordnance). MIL-STD-464A mandates assessment of HERO in
a system, but Navy document OD 30393 provides design
principles and practices for controlling electromagnetic
hazards to ordnance.
• On the other hand, the risk related to fueling is known
as HERF (Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Fuel).
NAVSEA OP 3565 Vol. 1 could be used to evaluate HERF,
which states a maximum power density of 0.09 W/m² for
frequencies under 225 MHz (i.e. 4.2 meters for a 40 W
emitter).
Biological hazards
•The best understood biological effect of electromagnetic fields is to cause
dielectric heating. For example, touching or standing around an antenna while a
high-power transmitter is in operation can cause severe burns. These are
exactly the kind of burns that would be caused inside a microwave oven.
•This heating effect varies with the power and the frequency of the
electromagnetic energy. A measure of the heating effect is thespecific
absorption rate or SAR, which has units of watts per kilogram (W/kg).
The IEEE[3] and many national governments have established safety limits for
exposure to various frequencies of electromagnetic energy based on SAR,
mainly based onICNIRP Guidelines,[4] which guard against thermal damage.
•There are publications which support the existence of complex biological
effects of weaker non-thermal electromagnetic fields (see Bioelectromagnetics),
including weak ELF magnetic fields.[5][6] and modulated RF and microwave
fields[7] Fundamental mechanisms of the interaction between biological material
and electromagnetic fields at non-thermal levels are not fully understood.[8]
•DNA fragmentation. A 2009 study at the University of Basel in Switzerland
found that intermittent (but not continuous) exposure of human cells to a 50 Hz
electromagnetic field at a flux density of 1 mT (or 10 G) induced a slight but
significant increase of DNA fragmentation in the Comet assay.[9] However that
level of exposure is already above current established safety exposure limits.
 Positions of governments and scientific bodies

• World Health Organization

• "The Task Group concluded that there are no substantive health
issues related to ELF electric fields at levels generally encountered
by members of the public.... [O]n balance, the evidence
[about magnetic fields being] related to childhood leukaemia is not
strong enough to be considered causal.... A number of other
adverse health effects have been studied for possible association
with ELF magnetic field exposure. These include other childhood
cancers, cancers in adults, depression, suicide, cardiovascular
disorders, reproductive dysfunction, developmental disorders,
immunological modifications, neurobehavioural effects and
neurodegenerative disease. The WHO Task Group concluded that
scientific evidence supporting an association between ELF magnetic
field exposure and all of these health effects is much weaker than
for childhood leukaemia. In some instances (i.e. for cardiovascular
disease or breast cancer) the evidence suggests that these fields do
not cause them."[10]
• Mobile phone radiation and health concerns have been
raised, especially following the enormous increase in the use
of wireless mobile telephony throughout the world (as of
August 2005, there were more than 2 billion users
worldwide). Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in
the microwave range, and some[39][unreliable medical source?] believe
this may be harmful to human health. These concerns have
induced a large body of research (both epidemiological and
experimental, in non-human animals as well as in humans).
Concerns about effects on health have also been raised
regarding other digital wireless systems, such as data
communication networks.

• The World Health Organization, based upon the consensus

view of the scientific and medical communities, states that
health effects (e.g. headaches or promotion of cancer) are
unlikely to be caused by cellular phones or their base stations,
[40][41] and expects to make recommendations about mobile
phones in the third quarter of 2010 at the earliest, or the first
quarter of 2011 at the latest.[42]
U.S. military definition

•In Federal Standard 1037C, the United States government

adopts thefollowing definition:

•Electromagnetic radiation hazards (RADHAZ or EMR

hazards): Hazards caused by a transmitter/antenna
installation that generates electromagnetic radiation in the
vicinity of ordnance, personnel, or fueling operations in
excess of established safe levels or increases the existing
levels to a hazardous level; or a personnel, fueling, or
ordnance installation located in an area that is illuminated
by electromagnetic radiation at a level that is hazardous to
the planned operations or occupancy.
• These hazards will exist when an
electromagnetic field of sufficient intensity is
generated to: (a) induce or otherwise couple
currents and/or voltages of magnitudes large
enough to initiate electroexplosive devices or
other sensitive explosive components of weapon
systems, ordnance, or explosive devices; (b)
cause harmful or injurious effects to humans and
wildlife; (c) create sparks having sufficient
magnitude to ignite flammable mixtures of
materials that must be handled in the affected
area. —Department of Defense Dictionary of
Military and Associated Terms
CONELRAD (Contal Electromagnetic
Radiation)
• CONELRAD (Control
of ElectromagneticRadiation) was a method
of emergencybroadcasting to the public of
the United States in the event of enemy
attack during the Cold War. It was intended to
serve two purposes; to
prevent Soviet bombers from homing in on
American cities by usingradio or TV stations
as beacons, and to provide essential civil
defense information.U.S. President Harry S.
Trumanestablished CONELRAD in 1951.
• After the development of intercontinental ballistic
missiles reduced the likelihood of a bomber
attack, CONELRAD was replaced by
the Emergency Broadcast System on August 5,
1963, which was later replaced with
the Emergency Alert System in 1997; all were
administered by the Federal Communications
Commission(FCC).[1]
• Unlike its successors, the EBS and EAS,
CONELRAD was never used for nor intended to
be used for severe weather warnings or local
civil emergencies.
• ONELRAD concept was originally known
as theKey Station System. According to an
FCC document created during the
"Informal Government - Industry Technical
Conference" on March 26, 1951
• In the event of an emergency, all United
States television and FM radio stationswere required to
stop broadcasting. Upon alert, most AM medium
wave stations shut down. The stations that stayed on the
air would transmit on either 640 or 1240 kHz. They would
transmit for several minutes, and then go off the air and
another station would take over on the same frequency
in a "round robin" chain. This was to confuse enemy
aircraft who might be navigating using Radio Direction
Finding. By law, radio sets manufactured between 1953
and 1963 had these frequencies marked by the triangle-
in-circle ("CD Mark") symbol of Civil Defense.
• In the event of an emergency, all United
States television and FM radio stationswere required to stop
broadcasting. Upon alert, most AM medium wave stations shut down.
The stations that stayed on the air would transmit on either 640 or
1240 kHz. They would transmit for several minutes, and then go off
the air and another station would take over on the same frequency in
a "round robin" chain. This was to confuse enemy aircraft who might
be navigating using Radio Direction Finding. By law, radio sets
manufactured between 1953 and 1963 had these frequencies marked
by the triangle-in-circle ("CD Mark") symbol of Civil Defense.[3]

• "CD Mark" symbols like this (though generally shown as simple white triangles) were on every
radio sold in the U.S., at the 640 kHz and 1240 kHz frequency points, to help listeners find the
CONELRAD stations.