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2.2
2.2
The electrons in the outermost energy levels are called
valence electrons.
The group number (of the representative elements) on the
periodic table tells you the number of valence electrons.
Group 1A: 1 valence electron
2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
2.2
Isotopes are two or more forms of the same element
(same number of protons) whose atoms differ in
number of neutrons, and hence in mass.
Isotopes of carbon: • Carbon 14 ( 6C)
C-12, C-13, C-14 – Used in dating old materials
also written as: 12C – Atomic number: 6
13
C 14C – Atomic mass: 14
– # of neutrons = Atomic mass-
Atomic #
– 6 protons, 6 electrons, 8 neutrons
*The average mass is very close to 12.000 b/c 6C is by far the most abundant
isotope.
2.2
Representing molecules with Lewis structures:
lone pair
O
H H
bonding pair
2.3
Representing molecules with Lewis structures:
Typical valence for selected atoms = the # of bonds an atom typically forms
N 3 trivalent
C 4 tetravalent
2.3
Representing molecules with Lewis structures:
Multiple bonds
O O H C C H
Double bond Triple bond
O O O
N N N
O O O O O O
2.3
The Nature of Light
Low E
High E
The various types of radiation seem different to our senses, yet they differ only
in their respective and 2.4
Visible: = 700 - 400 nm
M MUDAS I R
Decreasing wavelength
2.4
The wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic
radiation are related by: c =
where c = 3 x 108 m/s (the speed of light)
2.5
What is the energy associated with a photon of light with a wavelength of 240 nm?
C = E=h
=C E = (6.63 x 10-34 J.s) (1.3 x 1015 s-1)
E = 8.6 x 10-19 J
x 108 m/s
10 -9
m = 1.3 x 1015 s-1
240 nm x
nm
2.5
2.6
The Chapman Cycle
≤
≤
A steady state
condition
2.6
Factors influencing steady-state
concentration of O3
• Intensity of UV radiation
– Expect O3 concentration will depend on season and
sun cycle
• Concentration of O2 and other reacting species
• Temperature
• Reaction rates (some of the steps are faster
than others)
• *Many of these factors depend on altitude, so O3
concentrations also depend on altitude.
Biological Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation
The consequences depend primarily on:
1. The energy associated with the radiation.
2. The length of time of the exposure.
3. The sensitivity of the organism to that radiation.
The most deadly form of skin cancer, melanoma, is
linked with the intensity of UV radiation and the latitude
at which you live.
As decreases, damage
to DNA increases.
2.7
O3 concentrations vs. altitude
O3 concentrations over time
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/cgi-
bin/texis/webinator/printall?/Library/Ozone/ozone_2.html
Revolutionized modern life! Throughout the 1960s and 70s, cheap air
conditioning using CFCs helped spur the booming growth of Southern
cities such as Atlanta, Dallas-Fort Worth and Houston.
Reactions with •Cl Removal of •Cl
•Cl +O3 O2 + •OCl
• Carried to lower
•OCl + O •Cl + O2 atmosphere by winds—
O3 + O 2O2 once in lower atmosphere,
there are many other
You can see that once •Cl is created compounds for •Cl to react
that it begins a chain reaction—it can with.
destroy many (~ 100,000!) O3
• If it encounters another •Cl
molecules.
the following reaction may
•Cl is acting as a catalyst—it is not occur: •Cl + •Cl Cl2
used up in the reaction
• May react with other
The presence of •Cl will affect the species to form stable
Chapman cycle balance!!!
compounds such as HCl
and ClONO2
Proof of relationship b/w ozone
depletion and stratospheric Cl
• 75-85% is from human activity
– CFCs
– Rocket fuel from space
shuttles (<1%)
• 15-20% is from methyl chloride
– Most from natural sources
and burning of biomass
• ~2% - Large, explosive volcanoes
– Increase amount of HCl
which can be converted to •Cl
– Only a few volcanoes have
enough explosive power to
project material into the
stratosphere.
Why is the hole over Antarctica?
• A special mechanism appears to be in effect here, related to the fact that
the lower stratosphere over the South Pole is the coldest spot on Earth.
– During the Antarctic winter (June to September), a strong circumpolar
wind develops in the middle to lower atmosphere
• keeps warmer new air (w/ new O3) from entering
– Temps can get as low as -90oC!
– At temps < 80oC, clouds of ice
crystals containing sulfates and
nitric acid can develop in the
stratosphere.
• In spring, when the sun comes out,
chemical reactions occurring on the
surface of these cloud particles convert
otherwise safe (non-ozone depleting)
molecules to more reactive species.
– ClONO2 & HCl converted to HOCl & http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/Tango/
Cl2
– HOCl •Cl + •OH ; Cl2 2 •Cl
UV light UV light
Summer conditions replenish hole
• In summer, sunlight warms
the atmosphere
– Ice crystals evaporate summer
• No ice crystals means the
conversion of ClONO2 & HCl
to more reactive species halts.
– Air from lower latitudes
flows into the polar regions,
replenishing depleted ozone
levels.
– Thus, “Ozone Hole” is spring
largely replenished by the
end of summer.
• Example: HFC-134a C C H
• Has no Cl atoms to
interact with ozone
US Emissions
• The 2 H atoms facilitate
decomposition in the
lower atmosphere,
without making it
flammable under normal
conditions.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/vr98rpt/chapter6.html
Timeline
• 1928 – CFCs invented
• 1950s-1970s – Consumption and use of CFCs rises rapidly
• 1971 – CFCs measured in the atmosphere
• 1974 – Rowland & Molina link CFCs with ozone depletion
• 1985 – First scientific assessment of stratospheric ozone levels
• 1987 – “Smoking gun” evidence linking decreasing ozone levels
with increasing stratospheric chlorine levels
– Montreal Protocol established a schedule to reduce
production & consumption of CFCs.
• 1991 – Multinational fund established to provide financial and
technical assistance to developing countries to enable
them to comply with control measures.
- B/w 1991 & 2004 $1.6 billion given to more than 100 countries
• 1995 – Production ban of CFCs in US and 140 other countries
goes into effect
– Rowland & Molina win Nobel Prize for their work
• 2030 – Production ban of HCFCs goes into effect