Biodegradable polymers

1)
-It is not surprising that the search for biodegradable polymers has also become highly popular in
scientific research: a search for the term “biodegradable polymer” in the Web of Science yields more
than 25 000 publications (on May 7 2018) including a large number of reviews. Some of these reviews
simply list biodegradable polymers; others explain degradation mechanisms or degradation testing
methods or focus in detail on a specific class of biodegradable polymers like polyesters.

-In general, the process of polymer biodegradation can be divided into four steps biodeterioration,
depolymerization, bioassimilation, and mineralization. In the first step, the formation of a microbial
biofilm leads to superficial degradation, in which the polymeric material is fragmented into smaller
particles. The microorganisms of the biofilm secrete extracellular enzymes, which in turn catalyze the
depolymerization of the polymer chain into oligomers, dimers, or monomers. The uptake of the small
molecules produced in this way into the microbial cell and the following production of primary and
secondary metabolites is a process called assimilation. In the last step, these metabolites are
mineralized and end products like CO2, CH4, H2O, and N2 are formed and released into the
environment

-A polymer can undergo transformations (mechanical, light, thermal, and chemical) when exposed to
weathering conditions and these can influence the mechanical properties of the polymer, for example,
the polymer can become brittle by UV irradiation. Another major pathway of chemical degradation for
polymers containing heteroatoms like esters, anhydrides, amides, or urethanes is hydrolysis.The
hydrolysis of the material proceeds either via a bulk or surface erosion mechanism . Here, bulk
erosion describes degradation that occurs uniformly through the thickness of a polymeric item, and
surface erosion describes a decrease in the surface thickness. Laycock et al. explained both
mechanisms and highlighted the factors influencing the hydrolysis. Briefly, surface erosion takes place
when the rate of hydrolysis exceeds the rate of diffusion of water into the bulk, or when a catalyst (e.g.
enzymes) cannot penetrate the bulk polymer. Surface erosion is the predominating mechanism for
hydrophobic and semi‐crystalline polymers and for polymers showing a very rapid hydrolysis rate. In
contrast, bulk erosion occurs when the rate of diffusion of water exceeds the rate of the hydrolysis
reaction. A material can change its hydrolysis mechanism from surface to bulk erosion when the
sample thickness falls below a critical value, the so‐called critical sample thickness. In general, the
shape of a material plays an important role as a larger surface area will promote degradation. For
example, the rate of degradation of polymer foils increases with decreasing thickness of the foil.

-The label “biodegradable” must always have a clear sign of the environment, in which the test was
performed. Alternatively, we suggest allotting the term “biodegradable” exclusively to those polymers,
which exhibit full mineralization into CO2, H2O, biomass, and inorganic salts and in all kinds of natural
environments within a reasonable time frame (and without producing toxic degradation products).
Only these materials could then guarantee a minimal impact of plastics on the environment.

-Yet, if we strive to replace all commodity plastics with biodegradable alternatives in order to achieve
a more sustainable future, we need to change the way we deal with plastics in general.  

-https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/anie.201805766
2)
-Biobased bioplastics are plastics made from renewable resources – agricultural feedstocks such as
corn, soybeans, or sugarcane. The starches, oils, and sugars from these feedstocks are extracted,
modified, and used as the chemical building blocks for these new bioplastic products. This is valuable
because these feedstocks are sources of “new” carbon because of their renewability. Petroleum/oil-
based products contain “old” carbon. The amount of new carbon in a product can be an important
measurement for the product’s sustainability. Bioplastics can also be made from used cooking oil,
straw, food waste, and natural gas. These second-generation feedstocks used for bioplastic products
are gaining in popularity.

-Bioplastics may also be defined and identified by their end-of-life attributes or benefits. One of these
is compostable bioplastic, designed to biodegrade during industrial composting into biomass, water,
and carbon dioxide. Diversion of organic wastes to composting is expanding across the country. that
compost yard trimmings, food scraps, biosolids, and bioplastics, etc. These composting facilities
manufacture valuable soil amendments for use in agriculture and other applications. It’s important to
note that bioplastic products may be biobased and/or biodegradable, as these attributes do not mean
the same thing.

-More and more companies are processing renewable feedstocks into chemical components and
biobased resins, and more companies are making bioplastic products and packaging. While
bioplastics currently make up less than 1 percent of the traditional plastics market, the opportunity for
future global growth is large. Growth in bioplastics from 2013-2017 is 29 percent; global growth in
bioplastics is expected to grow at a pace of 18 percent between 2017 – 2022. As agricultural crop
yields continue to increase, this kind of bioplastic product and market development is a promising
avenue for the use of these commodities.

-USDA’s BioPreferred Program works to increase the purchase and use of biobased products through
federal procurement and a certification and labeling initiative. The program helps federal agencies
meet statutory mandates to increase the specification and purchase of biobased products, including
bioplastics where applicable. The program’s USDA Certified Biobased Product label is a market
development initiative to increase consumer and buyer recognition, and the purchase of bioproducts.
Intermediate chemical manufacturers, bioplastic resin manufacturers, and global consumer product
companies launching new bioplastic products may third-party test and certify the new carbon content
of their bioplastics. After doing so, these products are identified as USDA Certified Biobased Products
and feature a label for easy identification and purchase by buyers and consumers. Since 2011, the
first year of USDA’s certification initiative, more than 100 bioplastic resins are identified as USDA
Certified Biobased Products. Bioplastic resin is the upstream ingredient that is manufactured into the
200 USDA Certified Biobased packaging and bioplastic products currently on the market.

-https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2018/09/19/new-industrial-revolution-plastics