ENGG ZC 242

MAINTENANCE &
SAFETY
BITS Pilani ARUN MAITY
Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

CONDITION BASED MAINTENANCE

LECTURE NO. 3 CHAPTER 3

CONDITION BASED
MAINTENANCE
• Maintenance work initiated as a result of knowledge of the
condition of an item from routine or continuous checking
• Carried out in response to a significant deterioration in a
unit as indicated by a change in monitored parameter of
the unit condition / performance
• Signature analysis technique is intended to continuously
monitor the health of the equipment by recording
systematic signals or information derived in the form of
mechanical vibrations, noise, signals, acoustic or thermal
emissions, changes in chemical compositions, smell,
pressure, relative displacement etc.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Condition Monitoring

• Use of advanced technologies to determine the health

and condition of equipment by observing, checking,
measuring and monitoring certain parameters and
signals and predict failures
• Used as a predictive or condition based maintenance
technique
• It is not life extending activity. Life extending activities are
lubrication, alignment, balancing and operating
procedures
• It only provides information on failures before there is
breakdown

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Levels of Monitoring

• Level 1: Inspection monitoring based on human senses

as in preventive maintenance schedules

• Level 2: Assisted monitoring, using portable equipment

• Level 3: Lubricant analysis and wear debris collection

• Level 4: Fixed monitoring systems connected to alarm

systems or data logging equipment

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Characteristics /
Instruments
• Light: Optical microscopes, magnifiers, cameras
• Speed and running time: Tachometers
• Torque: Torque meter, prony brake
• Tension and Compression: Load cell, strain gauge
• Pressure: pressure gauge, pressure recorder-controller
• Volume: flowmeters
• Noise: sound level meter
• Vibration: vibration amplitude and frequency analysers
• Dimension: micrometers, electronic gauges
• Flaws: Ultrasonic, dye penetration, x-rays

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Leaks: Leak detectors, gas analysers, soap test
• Electric current: volt-ohm-ammeter, tong tester
• Electrical insulation: Megaohmmeter
• Corrosion Insulation: In line test specimen
• Lubrication: carbon residue, spectrographic analysis
• Temperature: Thermometer, pyrometer, infrared ray,
thermography
• Liquid Level: pressure gauge, float gauge
• Fits and tolerances: Proximity testers
• Movement: Frequency analysers
• Deterioration of materials: Radiography, ultrasonic, dye-
penetration

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Technologies

• Vibration Measurement and Analysis

• Infrared Thermography

• Oil Analysis and Tribology

• Ultrasonic

• Motor Current Analysis

• Gas Leakage Detection

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Condition Signals and
Monitoring
• Primary Signals: Those signals required to assess the
performance of the equipment such as oscillations in
vibratory screens
• Secondary Signals: Those signals which appears as loss
output like vibration, sound, thermal, chemical or
physical changes etc.
• Dynamic Signals: Those signals which are easily
identified by measuring frequencies using suitable
instruments / devices – vibration, sound, leakages, heat
• Tribological Signals- Friction and wear characteristics,
lubricant contamination, chemical changes

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Offline CM

• OFFLINE SYSTEM: The monitoring equipment is kept

parallel to the equipment to be monitored. Various
monitoring points are provided for attaching such
equipment

• It can be periodic or continuous

• Monitoring Gadgets can be connected or made ON at

the time of monitoring and then removed or switched
OFF

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Online CM

• The monitoring equipment are built in or installed in

series with running equipment – Filter chocking signals

• Generally continuous

• Mostly with bypass and few without bypass

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

CM Techniques

• PERFORMANCE MONITORING
• VISUAL, OPTICAL, TACTILE AND AURAL
MONITORING
• TEMPERATURE MONITORING
• VIBRATION MONITORING
• LUBRICATION MONITORING
• LEAKAGE MONITORING
• CRACK MONITORING
• THICKNESS MONITORING
• CORROSION MONITORING

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• NOISE / SOUND MONITORING

• ULTRASONIC MONITORING

• SMELL / ODOUR MONITORING

• MOTOR CURRENT SIGNATURE ANALYSIS

• PARTIAL DISCHARGE MONITORING

• RADIOGRAPHIC MONITORING

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Performance Monitoring

• PRESSURE : Bourdon tubes, Strain gauge, diaphragms

• FLOW: orifice plate, venturi tube, pitot tube

• LEVEL: float, capillary probe, optical refraction

• PHYSICAL MONITORING: load, force, displacement

• ANALYTICAL MONITORING: pH meter, chromatography

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Visual Tactical And Aural
Monitoring
 Looseness in non-rotating components

 Wear debris, fretting corrosion

 Debris from friction joints such as bolted, riveted

 Relative motion between two components can be

sensed by finger

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Six senses of Human Being
• Optical Probes
• Microscope, Borescope, Stroboscope
• Photographs and Videos
• Radiography
• X-rays, thermographs
• Automated Visual Inspection – Rapid image analysis
technique

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Thermal Monitoring:
Purpose

To enable the temperature of a process to be controlled

manually or to check that it is being controlled properly

To detect an increase in heat generation due to some

malfunction such as damaged bearing

To detect a change in the heat transmitted through and out

of the body of the machine caused by a change in some
component

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• Temperature Crayons and Tapes
• Thermometers and Optical pyrometers
• Softening cones / wax paints
• Thermocouples and fusible plugs
• Infra-red meters
• Thermography
• Bimetallic Strips
• Thermistors
• Contact sensors: Liquid expansion sensors, Bimetallic
expansion sensors, Thermocouple sensors

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Uses

• Thermocouples and Optical Pyrometers measure high

temperatures in places which are inaccessible
• Fusible Plugs used in Boilers as safety measures can
also detect defects and mal-functioning
• Used for lubricant condition, electrical insulation,
operating condition etc.
• Can detect bearing damage, failure of coolant, incorrect
heat generation
• Build up of unwanted materials
• Damage to insulating materials
• Faults in electrical components

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Infrared Thermography

• It operates by measuring the infrared energy of any

object’s surface and producing a detailed visual image
showing its temperature profile
• Electromagnetic radiations with wavelength 0.75 to 1000
microns are called infrared radiations
• Radiation detectors detect signals from the object,
amplifies, scans and indicates in different forms like
imaging
• Thermal Imaging: provides comprehensive two-
dimensional maps of thousands of temperatures is
seconds without the need to contact with the components

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Uses

• Detecting faults in electrical panels, breakers,

switchgears, insulators, wiring, distribution system etc.
• Locate water leakage in roofs, steam traps, ineffective
HVAC, motors and bearings defect
• Pipe blockages and underground pipe leakages
• Thermal Imaging can predict equipment failure and plan
corrective actions before a costly shutdown or equipment
damage

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Leakage Monitoring

• It is unintended discharge or oozing of fluids and gases

from mechanical components because of clearances or
wear out / erosion of parts
• Monitoring of internal leakages are done through regular
checking of the level and condition of fluids in reservoirs
• Monitoring of gas leakages in underground pipelines
• Pressure drop is pipes may also indicate leakages
• Flow measurement also can detect leakage points

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Leakage Monitoring
Methods
LIQUIDS
•Interstitial Monitoring: detector in walls
•Level Monitoring : level gauges and alaram in tanks
•Vapor Monitoring : vapor sensors
•Liquid Monitoring : cable sensors
GASES
•Sound
•Smell
•Bubble coming out of leaking components
•Sensors

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Thickness Monitoring

• Used for assessing the thickness of the pipelines, pressure vessels,

tanks, bottles, cylinders etc.
• In line monitoring is done using two laser triangulation sensors,
mounted on opposite sides of the product with difference in sensor
readings determining thickness variations
• Using Ultrasonic system, a sound pulse travels through the material,
bounces off the back surface of the material and returns to the
probe
• Instrument measures accurately the length of time taken between
transmitting and receiving back the pulse and then multiplies that by
sound velocity of the material under test and converts the result in
digital form

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Crack Monitoring

• Measures not total crack depth and width but change in

crack width (crack displacement)
• Crack displacement is due to:
• Differential thermal expansion
• Structural and machining overloading
• Chemical changes in various components of machine
• Shrinkage due to temperature and humidity changes
• Fatigue and ageing of components
• Techniques:
• Dye Penetration test, magnetic Flux Electric Resistance,
Eddy current test, Ultrasonic and Radiographic tests

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Corrosion Monitoring

TECHNIQUES:

• Weight Loss Method

• Electrical Resistance Method
• Linear Polarization Resistance Method
• Galvanic Or Zero Resistance Method
• Hydrogen Monitoring Method

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Noise Or Sound Monitoring

• Human ear can detect frequencies between 20Hz and

20kHz
• Noise due to vibration of the structures and components
of the machines resulting in rapid energy release, rapid
pressure, temperature rise, cavitation, air ingress,
leakages etc.
• Techniques:
• Subjective assessment Acoustic ducts
• Surface intensity approach Acoustic intensity approach
• Lead wrapping technique Impulsive Noise Monitoring
• Infrasonic noise monitoring and microbarograph

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Smell / Odour Monitoring

• Gas Detection Systems

– SO2 analyzer to measure SO2 in flue gas

– CO, CO2, NH3, CH4 detectors/analyzers based on

infrared technique

– Hydrocarbon Analyzers for monitoring stack gases of

boilers/ furnaces

– Nox Analyzers based on chemi-luminescent techniques

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Motor Current Signature
Analysis
• Diagnose problems such as broken rotor bars, shorted
turns in low voltage stator windings etc.
• High resistance joints in squirrel cage windings
• Casting porosities in aluminum die cast rotors
• Poor brazed joints in copper fabricated rotors
• Rotor winding problems in slip-ring induction motors
• Static and dynamic air gap irregularities
• Unbalanced magnetic forces
• Mechanical unbalance, bent shaft or bearing
irregularities

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Electrical & Mechanical
Analysis using MCSA
• It is online analysis of the current to detect fault in a 3-
phase induction motor drive

• MCSA consists of :
• a current transformer to sense signal
• A resistive shunt across the output of CT
• MCSA instrument to produce the current spectrum signature

• Electrical analysis: Voltage quality, Harmonic detection, Power factor

• Rotor Analysis: Broken rotor bars, static and dynamic eccentricity
• Stator Analysis: Stator winding problems
• Mechanical Analysis : Bearing Problems, Mechanical Imbalance

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Driven Equipment

• Driven equipment frequencies can be detected and

monitored

• Belt and sheave drives, gear-mesh drives, direct drives,

fans and impellers

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Partial Discharge
Monitoring
• Electrical condition monitoring system to detect
insulation breakdown of high voltage equipment
• High precision modular acquisition analysis tool kits are
available for detecting, recording and analyzing partial
discharge events
• Used for transformer testing, large motor and generator
testing
• Cable testing, onsite assembling, Gas insulated switch
gear testing

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Industrial Radiography

• Work involving the examination of the structure of materials

by NDT utilizing ionising radiation such as activating X-ray
units, the monitoring of radiation levels etc.
• Radiographic wall thickness measurements of insulated
piping in the chemical and petrochemical industry
• Radiographic image of the tube is evaluated off-line after
the film is developed and captured in Computer
• Neutron Radiography works on the basis of neutron
attenuation by the hydrogen in the detection of corrosion,
before substantial attack and thinning of material has
occurred

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Lubricant Monitoring

• Fluid Properties Analysis : Lubricants physical and

chemical properties such as viscosity, acid number,
demulsibility, additives etc.
• Fluid Contamination Analysis: Presence of contaminants
such as dirt, glycol, soot, fuel, water etc. in the oil
• Fluid Wear Debris Analysis: Wear materials and
contaminants suspended in used oil mainly from the
machine components through which the oil interfaces
and generates some wear metals and wear particles

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Techniques of Lubricant
Monitoring
• Sources of Wear Debris
• Spectrometric Oil Analysis Procedure
• Direct Reader Ferrography
• Visual Method Monitoring
• Filter debris analysis
• Scanning electron microscope
• Magnetic plugs
• Lubricant Contamination control

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Sources of Contamination

• Rubbing Wear Particles: normal wear, small flakes of

metal
• Fatigue Chunks: subsurface stressing in gears or shafts
• Sliding wear particles: metal to metal contact with no
lubricant film, loose bearings
• Cutting Wear: abrasive contact between two surfaces
• Laminar Wear: sub surface stressing in rolling element
bearings
• Oxides and Rust

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Magnetic Plugs

• Magnetic probes positioned in the lubrication systems for

maximum catch efficiency of the wear debris and other
metallic particles from the oil
• Fitted at the bottom of sump, reservoir, gear boxes and
centrifugal compressor castings so that these can be
removed periodically along with collected metallic debris
• It also helps in cleaning the oil
• It also works as drain plug in earth moving equipment

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Filter Debris Analysis

• Diagnostic Filter System: Debris is removed from the

filter element onto an analysis membrane by back
flashing with solvent or solvent-air mixture by ultrasonic
removal in a solvent
• Evaluated for amount, size distribution and morphology
• Chemical elemental composition is determined by
spectroscopy
• Filtergrams are the images of debris segregation and
concentration

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Ferrography

• It is analytical method of assessing the machine health

by quantifying and examining wear particles suspended
in the lubricant or hydraulic fluid
• The wear debris present in the lubricant sample are
precipitated on a glass substrate and can be viewed
through a powerful bi-chromatic microscope
• Wear mode: Abrasion, impact, fatigue, erosion, corrosion
• Rate: Concentration of debris indicates rate of wear
• Severity: Size of debris indicates severity
• Location: Colour of particles identifies the type of
material which pinpoints the affected components

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Analytical Ferrography

• It can predict potential equipment failures

• It is qualitative analysis and provides digital imagery of
the actual particles present
• It utilizes microscopic analysis to identify the composition
of the material present
• Particles are analysed based on metallic or non-metallic

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Direct Read Ferrography

• It is a quantitative analysis of ferrous particles present in

used oil
• It provides the index of large ferrous particles (DL more
than 5 microns) to small ferrous particles (DS less than 5
micron)
• Wear Particle concentration = DL + DS
• Percentage of large particles = ( DL – DS ) / WPC
• WPC is the indicative of the rate of wear
• PLP indicates the onset of abnormal wear conditions

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

• The ratio DL/DS is a measure of wear condition.
• A rapid increase in DL/DS shows abnormal wear.
• Total wear Q = DL+DS
• 'Severity terms' S=DL-DS. Sharp rise in DL-DS indicates increased
generation of large particles, leading to sudden increase in total
wear thus imminence of catastrophic failure is indicated.
• Mean = The average of Q values determined to be normal wear.
• Severity of wear index Q x S. = (DL+DS) x (DL-DS)
• Percentage of large particles (PLP) = (DL-DS) x 100 / (DL+DS)
• An increase in both the wear particle concentration and percentage
of large particles is an indication of abnormal wear condition

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Particle Quantifier and APC

• It measures ferromagnetic debris in lubricating oil's,

greases, etc.
• It has excellent sensitivity for particle sizes from 1 to >
2000 microns and is used to monitor trends as in
indicator of wear condition known as a "PQ Index”
• Automatic Particle Counter (APC) - An oil sample is
passed through a magnetic field in which photo sensors
measure the change in transmitted light, yielding a digital
read out proportional to the amount of refraction. The
resultant number is an indication of the quantity of metal
particle in the oil

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Rotary Particle Depositor
Ferrograph
• It combines magnetic and centrifugal separation
• A measured volume of sample is applied, by pipette to a
glass substrate located on a rotating magnet assembly
• Particles of debris are deposited radially as three concentric
rings by the combined effects of rotational, magnetic and
gravitational forces
• The RPD instrument is used for preparing a slide for
ferrogram for subsequent examination by optical microscope
• Non-ferromagnetic materials like Aluminium, Bronze, etc.
which have rubbed against ferromagnetic material, and
thereby picked up some of the particles from such materials,
would also get deposited on the slide

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

SOAP: Spectroscopic Oil
Analysis Program
• It is a procedure for extracting fluid samples from operating
systems and analyzing them spectroscopically to determine
the concentration of key elements represented in the
entrained fluid contaminant
• Molecular Spectroscopy determines the molecule
concentrations
• Used in Debris monitoring and qualitative multi-elemental
analysis of wear debris in lubricating oil
• The elemental concentration of 20 elements are reported in
ppm
• Based on the elements identified, the typical problems can
be listed

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Lubricant Contamination
Control
• Insoluble Soluble Water
• Strainers and centrifuge Diatomaceous earth Decant
• Cellulosic Fibres Activated Alumina Polymer abs
• Microfibre glass fiber Other absorbents Coalesce
• Magnetic Filteration Ion exchange Centrifuge
• Electrostatic Oil cleaning Vacuum Dehydration

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Ultrasound Monitoring

• High frequency sound wave 20kHz to 300kHz

• Leak Detection in pressurized or vacuum systems
• Steam Trap inspection and analysis
• Mechanical inspection and analysis
• Lubrication Improvement
• Valve Inspection and Analysis
• Crack detection and monitoring
• Thickness measuring and measuring
• Electrical Inspection

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Vibration - Causes

Mechanical
• Unbalanced rotating components
• Bent shaft
• Pump and driver misalignment
• Worn, loose or bad rolling element bearings
• Loose hold down bolts
• Rubbing of parts
• Gears not meshed properly
• Improper design of base plate

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Hydraulic Causes
•Pumps/hydraulic motors not operating at rated capacity
•Vaporization of product
•Internal recirculation
•Air getting into the system
•Turbulence in the system
•Water hammer
•Cavitation
•Other Reasons: Harmonic vibration from nearby equipment,
electrical troubles, dynamic loading of mechanical components

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Special Vibration
Monitoring techniques
• Frequency tracking
• Run-down test
• Correlation analysis
• Time domain analysis
• Statistical amplitude analysis
• Stress wave emission
• Cepstrum analysis

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Vibration Monitoring
Techniques : On Load
• Periodic field measurements with portable instruments
• Continuous monitoring with permanently installed
instruments
• Locating the monitor points and mounting the
transducers
• Total signal monitoring
• Frequency analysis
• Peak signal monitoring
• Spectrum analysis
• Shock pulse monitoring

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Vibration Analysis

• It can forecast potential machinery problems and pinpoint

their causes

• Problems detected: Imbalance, misalignment, motor and

electrical defects, gear train defects and bearing defects

• Instrument used: Accelerometers, FFT analyser, recorder

and a set of cables are used to obtain spectral plots

• Used for verification of alignment between shafts

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Vibration Monitoring

• It includes vibration measurement, collection and

analysis, monitors the response of the system to internal
and external forces being applied

• Response is measured by transducers and analyzers

interpret the response

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Vibration Signatures

• Machine vibration is complex consisting of many

frequencies due to vibration of number of components

• Overall level of the vibration is only the indicator of the

operating condition of machine

• Determine and plot the individual amplitude and

frequencies of all vibrating components of the machine

• A change in signature is an indication of impending failure

and its location

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Vibration Analysis Methods

• An effective method of detecting machine faults,

diagnosing the nature and severity of the fault
• Rotor imbalance, misalignment can identified and rectified
• Severity of wear and remaining life of bearings can be
predicted
Methods:
• Spectral Analysis
• Statistical Analysis
• Envelope Analysis
• Spike Energy Method

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Analysis techniques:

• Natural frequency and critical damping

• Harmonic forces and concept of resonance
• Transient and impulse forces
• Vibration Isolation and vibration absorption
• Motor current analysis
• Real time analysis for vibration

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Classification:

• Overall vibration level measurement to detect that the

problem exists

• Spectral or frequency analysis to locate where the

problem is in the machine

• Special techniques can indicate what the problem is

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Vibration Transducers

• It converts vibration input of the machine to electrical

signal outputs in various forms giving required
information

• Accelerometer, Piezoresistive accelerometer, velocity

transducers, FFT analyzers, Low-resonance geophones,
PZT actuators, Vibration shaker, Vibration holographs

• Proximity probes are sensitive to displacement

• Velocity probes are sensitive to velocity
• Acceleration probes are sensitive to acceleration

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Machinery Vibration Trouble
shooting
• Benign or Normal Vibration: Vibrations which are a part
of their operation and are not to be worried about

• Pure tones and hums of most electrical motors

• Blade passing frequency
• Gear mesh frequencies

• Vibration Isolation: Limiting the transmission of vibration

to surrounding structures or preventing ambient vibration
from reaching machine performing precision work

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Alignment

• Offset and Angularity

• Alignment Tolerance
• Past alignment records
• Pre-alignment procedures
• Base and Foot Problems
• Rim and Face Alignment methods
• Reverse Dial Alignment methods
• Laser System Alignment methods
• Problems with Dynamic Movement

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus