 The conversion of light energy into chemical

energy that is stored in organic compounds

(carbohydrates > glucose)

 Used by autotrophs such as:

◦ Plants
◦ Algae
◦ Some bacteria (prokaryotes)
 Light energy

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Chlorophyll

Reactants: Carbon dioxide and water

Products: glucose and oxygen which
is a byproduct
 Where does
photosynthesis
take place?
 Mainly occurs in the leaves:
a. mesophyll cells

Mesophyll Chloroplast
Cell
 waxy cuticle – prevents water loss

 Upper and lower epidermis - protective layer of cells , no

chloroplasts.

 The palisade mesophyll layer -more chloroplasts. The chloroplasts

- pigment chlorophyll. The palisade cells closely packed arranged
upright- more light.
 The spongy mesophyll layer -air spaces –diffusion of gases

 The vascular bundle : Xylem-provides water.

Phloem- takes products of photosynthesis away.

 The stomata (stoma - singular) – CO2 enters

 Guard cells can open or close the stomata pores
 Pores in a plant’s cuticle through which water
vapor and gases (CO2 & O2) are exchanged
between the plant and the atmosphere.

Oxygen
(O2)
Stoma

Guard Cell Guard Cell

Carbon Dioxide
(CO2)
Found on the underside of leaves
 Nucleus
Cell Wall
Chloroplast

Central Vacuole

Photosynthesis occurs in these cells!

Organelle where photosynthesis takes place.
Stroma
Outer Membrane Thylakoid Granum
Inner Membrane

Thylakoid stacks are connected together

chloroplasts
Thylakoids – flattened sacs contain pigment - chlorophyll
Grana (pl: granum) – layered thylakoids (like pancakes)
Stroma – solution around thylakoids
Starch grains- plant store of carbohydrates
Intergranal lamella- found between thylakoid
Small (70s )Ribosomes
Circular DNA
dbl membrane Endosymbiont theory- chloroplast
evolved from bacteria incorporated
into eukaryotic cells.
 Thylakoid
Membrane with
photosynthetic
pigments embedded

Thylakoid Space
Granum

Grana make up the inner membrane

 Photosynthetic pigments
 Photosynthetic pigments -compounds that
absorbs light
◦ different pigments absorb different wavelengths of
white light.

 chlorophyll is the most abundant pigment that

absorbs red & blue light (photons) so green is
reflected or transmitted.

 Chlorophyll is located in the thylakoid

membranes. So, Plants are green because the
green wavelength is reflected, not absorbed.
 Chlorophylls have a
complex porphyrin ring
structure and in the
centre of each ring is a
magnesium ion and a
hydrophobic C-H tail

 Chlorophyll a – involved in light dependent

reactions. Absorbs longer wavelengths. See
absorption spectrum graph. Primary pigment.

 Chlorophyll b – assists in capturing light

energy
 In addition to the chlorophyll pigments, there are
other pigments present -Carotenoids such as
carotene and xanthophylls– accessory pigments –
captures wide range of short wavelengths -Red, orange
& yellow - they protect the chlorophyll by absorbing
some of this energy and passing it on to the chlorophyll.

 During the fall, the green chlorophyll pigments are greatly reduced revealing
the other pigments
 The main form of energy from the sun is in
the form of electromagnetic radiation

 Visible radiation (white light) used for

photosynthesis


Remember : ROY G. BIV?
a. Absorption spectra
showing absorption
of light by chloroplast
pigments.

b. The action spectra

shows the rate of
photosynthesis at
different wavelengths,

Comparing the two

graphs shows the
effectiveness of the
different pigments in
absorbing light for
peak photosynthesis
rates.
 Photosystems
The absorption of light is carried out by the
photosynthetic pigment molecules in two different units
or light harvesting clusters called PHOTOSYSTEMS.

Photosystem I (PS1) P700- several hundred

accessory pigments surround the primary
pigment chlorophyll a molecule with a peak
absorption of 700nm (reaction centre).

Photosystem II (PS 11) P 680- several

hundred accessory pigments surround a
chlorophyll a molecule with a peak absorption
of 680nm.
 The light dependent
stage
In this stage energy from sunlight
is transferred into the production
of ATP and the coenzyme NADP
is reduced.

NADP- (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate)

 ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate
 It is composed of the nitrogen base

ADENINE, the pentose (5C) sugar RIBOSE,

and three PHOSPHATE groups
 The LAST phosphate group is bonded with a

HIGH ENERGY chemical bond

 This bond can be BROKEN to release ENERGY

for CELLS to use

Breaking the LAST PHOSPHATE bond from
ATP, will ---
◦ Release ENERGY for cells to use
◦ Form ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
◦ Produce a FREE PHOSPHATE GROUP
High Energy Phosphate Bond
FREE PHOSPHATE can be re-attached to
ADP reforming ATP

Process called Phosphorylation

Energy reaching the reaction centre
(chlorophyll a) molecule raises an electron in
this molecule to a higher energy level.

Chlorophyll Chlorophyll+ + e’
The “excited” electron is lost by chlorophyll to
be taken up by an electron acceptor
molecule. The Chlorophyll is oxidised.
The transfer of one or more
electrons from one reactant to
another
Two types:
1. Oxidation is the loss of e-
2. Reduction is the gain of e-
 Photophosphorylation

The addition of phosphate to ADP to make

ATP using the energy that originally came
from light.

When the electron acceptor receives the electron from

chlorophyll it passes the electron along a series of electron
carriers (electron transport chain) , it loses energy as it
moves from carrier to carrier. The energy is used to
combine ADP and P.
 Occurs in the Thylakoid membranes
 During the light dependent reactions,
reactions there
are two possible routes for electron flow
for phosphorylation of ADP.

A. Cyclic Photophosphorylation
B. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
 Occurs in the thylakoid membrane.
membrane
 Uses Photosystem I only
 Light absorbed by P700 reaction center-

chlorophyll a
 Chlorophyll a electron becomes excited.

Chlorophyll is oxidised
 Electron passed to electron acceptor then

through chain of Electron carriers.(ETC)

 Energy released to generate ATP only

ADP + P ATP
 Primary e-
SUN Electron
Acceptor

e- e- ATP
produced
Photons by ETC
e-
P700
Accessory
Pigments
Photosystem I
 Occurs in the thylakoid membrane
 Uses PS II and PS I
 Light hits P680 rxn center (PSII) - chlorophyll a
 Chlorophyll a (P680) is oxidised. Electrons accepted by electron
acceptor.
 Electron acceptor passes electrons through ETC. ATP generated.
Electrons goes to PS1.
 Photolysis of water- 2H2O 4H+ + 4e- + O2 provides electrons to
replace electrons lost by PS11.
 P700 rxn cente PSI gets hit by light. Chlorophyll a (P700) is oxidised
and passes electrons to electron acceptor.
 Electrons passes through Electron carrier chain , then to NADP.
 NADP receives H+ ions from photolysis of water to become reduced.
 End result : It Generates O2, ATP and NADPH
 Primary
Electron 2e-
Acceptor
Enzyme
Primary Reaction
2e-
Electron
Acceptor
2e-
ETC

SUN 2e-
2e- NADPH
P700
Photon ATP
P680 Photon
H2O Photosystem I

1/2O2 + 2H+ Photosystem II

 ADP + P  ATP

 NADP+ + 2H+ + 2e’  NADPH

(Reduced)

 Oxygen comes from the splitting of H2O, not

CO2

2 H2O  O2 + 4H+ + 4 e’
 Powers ATP synthesis
 Takes place across the thylakoid

membrane
 Uses ETC and ATP synthase
 H+ move down their concentration

gradient forming ATP from ADP

 Concentration of protons is greater in thylakoid
than stroma
 STROMA– where Calvin Cycle occurs
Outer Membrane Thylakoid Granum
Inner Membrane
 Calvin Cycle
 Also called Carbon Fixation or Carbon

Cycle.
 Uses energy (ATP and NADPH) from

light reaction to make sugar

(glucose).
 CO2 diffuses from cytosol & combines with
RuBP . The reaction is catalysed by RUBISCO )
ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase . The
unstable six carbon compound splits into pair
of PGA – phosphoglyceric acid ( glycerate 3-
phosphate) GP.
 GP gets phosphate group from ATP and is
reduced by NADPH to become PGAL-
phosphoglyceradehyde (triose phosphate-
TP).
 One of six TP goes to make glucose.
 PGAL (TP) converts back to RuBP. Uses ATP

 Allows Calvin cycle to continue

 5/6 of TP used to make RUBP.
 Glucose, Fructose, sucrose, starch and
cellulose can be formed.
 The triose phopshate can be converted into

fatty acids , glycerol and amino acids.

 High light intensity or high CO2 = high rate
◦ Graph levels off (plateau) at saturation

 High temp = initial high rate but peaks

◦ Rate drops when stomata closes

◦ See graphs.
1. Compare light independent and
light dependent reactions.
2. What is accomplished in each of
the three major steps in the
calvin cycle?
3.What do NADPH2 and ATP do in
the calvin cycle?