Sexual Reproduction in

humans
Part 2- female reproductive system
 Female gonads are the ovaries.
 Reproductive organs:

◦ Ovaries
◦ Oviducts/fallopian tubes
◦ Uterus
◦ Cervix
◦ vagina
 Ovary
◦ 2 ovaries located in the upper pelvic cavity
◦ Produce one secondary oocyte each month
◦ Sometimes more than one secondary oocyte is
produced and this is how we get fraternal twins.

 Oocyte-immature egg that is undergoing

meiosis and after meiosis is completed the
oocyte becomes an egg cell
 Oviduct-
◦ extends from the ovaries to the uterus
◦ Not connected to or attached to the ovaries
◦ Have fimbriae that sweep over the two ovaries.
Fimbriae are finger-like projections.

 At ovulation, an oocyte is released from an

ovary and it is swept into an oviduct by the
action of the fimbriae and the movement of
the cilia that line the oviducts.
Comparison of sperm and ovum
 Female reproductive organs
organs Function
ovaries Produce sex hormones
Oviducts(fallopian tubes) Conduct egg:location of
fertilisation
uterus Houses developing embryo
cervix Contains opening to uterus
vagina Receives penis during copulation
and serves as birth canal
 Fertilisation of the egg occurs in an oviduct
and this creates a developing embryo.

 The embryo moves to the uterus by muscle

contractions and movement of the oviduct’s
cilia.
 Uterus:
◦ Thick-walled muscular organ with a narrow end
called the cervix.
◦ Lining called the endometrium
◦ Embryo embeds in the endometrium

 Vagina:
◦ Muscular tube that has folds that can expand and
extend.
◦ Ability to expands is important in copulation and
for the passage of a baby.
 The female genital organs are called the
vulva.
 The vulva consists of:

◦ Mons pubis(spans the area above the urethra and

vaginal openings)
◦ Labia minora(folds of skin on either side of the
urethral and vaginal openings)
◦ Labia majora(folds of skin on either side of the
urethral and vaginal opening)
◦ Glans clitoris
 The hymen is a thin membrane that covers
the vagina and it can be ruptured by
vigourous physical exercise or sexual
intercourse.
 Females have a separate urethral opening for

the passage of urine and a vaginal opening

that facilitates copulation.
 The clitoris is an organ that has a shaft of erectile tissue
and a glans at the tip.
 The glans is a bulbous structure that is innervated and it
makes the clitoris a sexually sensitive organ.
 The clitoris is homologous to the penis.
 The clitoris is located at the juncture of the labia minora.
 Orgasm in the female is the collective physiological and
psychological sensations that occur in the release of
tension in the muscles of the genitals, vagina and uterus.
 Contractions of the female reproductive tract help draw
the sperm towards the egg.
The ovarian cycle
 Ovarian cycle and uterine cycle are linked.
 Ovarian cycle produces eggs for fertilisation and
hormones which influence both cycles.
 The uterine cycle ensures that the uterus is
prepared for the embryo if fertilisation does occur.
 The secondary oocyte is the ovum.
 The female sex hormones are responsible for
controlling the ovarian cycle and the development
of secondary sexual characteristics.
 The ovaries produce female hormones: oestrogen
and progesterone.
 Secondary sexual characteristics in females
include:
◦ A rounded appearance due to high fat accumulation
under the skin
◦ A large pelvic girdle making wide hips
◦ Breast development
◦ Female hair pattern on head and pubic area.
 Ovarian cycle:
◦ Refers to monthly changes that occur in the ovary
causing the development of follicles, ovulation,
formation of the corpus luteum and levels of female
sex hormones in the blood.
◦ The ovaries contain numerous cellular follicles and
each follicle contains an oocyte.
◦ In the unborn female, the germ cells produce
oogonia.
 Oogonia proliferate by mitosis and then
differentiate into primary oocytes.
 The primary oocytes enter prophase 1 of

meiosis 1 and remain arrested until puberty.

 During prophase 1, primary oocytes grow

larger due to production of ribosomes, RNA ,

organelles and energy stores.
 A primary oocyte along with its surrounding

germinal epithelial cells is called a follicle.

 When the primary oocyte resumes meiosis, its
nucleus completes the first meiotic division
and the daughter cells of this division have
their cytoplasm unequally shared.
 The larger daughter cell with the most

cytoplasm is the secondary oocyte and the

other daughter cell is the first polar body.
 The secondary oocyte also divides unequally

in the second meiotic diivision producing a

haploid ootid and a second small polar body.
 The first polar body may not divide but all the
polar bodies disintegrate.
 The haploid ootid becomes the mature ovum.
 When females are born, all of their follicles have
already been produced.
 The number of follicles reduces by the time of
puberty and as females age.
 Only a small number of follicles mature and
produce an oocyte.
 New follicles capable of the producing oocytes are
not generated during a female’s lifetime.
Ovulation
 The ovarian cycle is the cyclic series of events
that occurs in the ovaries.
 Hormonal activity links the ovarian cycle to

the uterine cycle.

 This means that growth of the ovarian follicle

and ovulation are linked to the prepartion of

the uterus lining to receive the fertilised egg.
 During the ovarian cycle, a primary follicle
develops into a secondary follicle and finally into
a Graafian follicle(vesicular follicle).
 The role of the follicle is to supply the growing
egg with nourishment in its early stages of
development before ovulation.
 The primary follicle contains an oocyte and
starts to produce oestrogen.
 As the primary follicle develops into a secondary
follicle, the oocyte develops into the secondary
oocyte.
 The secondary oocyte is the female gamete and is
haploid.
 The secondary follicles produce oestrogen and a low level
of progesterone.
 Oestrogen causes the endometrium to start to thicken
and progesterone causes thickening as well.
 The secondary follicle is a fluid-filled cavity with the
oocyte at one side.
 The Graafian follicle is larger and its fluid-filled cavity
increases until the follicle wall bursts out onto the surface
of the ovary and the secondary oocyte is released.
 This is ovulation.
 Oogenesis is completed when a sperm
fertilizes the secondary oocyte.
 Fertilisation stimulates the completion of the

second meiotic division to form the ovum.

 The haploid nuclei of the sperm and ovum

fuse to create a diploid zygote, which is the

beginning of the embryo.
 After the Grafiaan follicle has released the

secondary oocyte, it develops into the corpus

luteum which produces progesterone.
 Progesterone causes the endometrium to
increase in thickness and the uterine glands
to mature and produce a thick mucoid
secretion so that it can receive the developing
embryo.
 If fertilisation of the ovum does not occur, the

corpus luteum starts to degenerate after

approximately 10 days.
Menstruation and menopause
 FSH stimulates a follicle to produce oestrogen
 LH stimulates the corpus luteum to produce
progesterone.
 Before puberty the level of GnRH is low, but after
puberty is reached the hypothalamus increases
hormone production.
 All of these hormones that influence the ovarian
cycle are secreted at different times during the
cycle.
 These hormones exhibit negative feedback control
over the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary.
Menstruation and menopause cont’d
 (A 28-day cycle is assumed for descriptive purposes. But some
females may experience longer or shorter ovarian cycles.)
 Follicular phase of ovarian cycle-
◦ FSH promotes the development of a follicle and as the
level of oestrogen rises in the blood, the secretion of FSH
is reduced and the follicular phase ceases.
◦ The high level of oestrogen causes the hypothalamus to
secrete a large amount of GnRH, which in turn causes a
surge of LH by the anterior pituitary.
◦ LH stimulates ovulation around the 14th day of the cycle.
Menstruation and menopause cont’d
 Luteal phase of ovarian cycle:
◦ Level of progesterone in the blood rises and it
exerts negative feedback control over the secretion
of LH.
◦ The changes in hormone levels cause the corpus
luteum to degenerate and menstration begins.
 Menstruation is the periodic shedding of blood and the
endometrium through the vagina.
 Menopause is the end of fertility in a female.
 At menopause, menstruation ceases and changes occur
in the reproductive tract and hormone production.
 there is a decline in the production of oestrogen by the
ovaries.
 At menopause, the vaginal walls become less elastic,
thinner and less rigid and vaginal secretions become
scant and watery.
 These changes may lead to sexual intercourse being
uncomfortable for some women.
Uterine cycle
 Oestrogen and progesterone affect the
endometrium and this causes the uterus to
undergo a series of events called the uterine
cycle.
 The uterine cycle is coordinated with the ovarian
cycle.
 (assuming a 28-day cycle)-During days 1-5 of
the cycle, the level of progesterone and
oestrogen is low and this low level causes the
endometrium to disintegrate and the blood
vessels within it rupture (ie menstration start).
 During days 6-13, the ovarian follicle
increases its production of oestrogen and
this causes the endometrium to rebuild itself
becoming thick and having a blood and
nutrient supply.
 The building of the endometrium is called the

proliferative phase of the uterine cycle.

 At the midterm of the 28-day cycle(day 14),
ovulation occurs.
 During days 15-28, the corpus luteum

produces progesterone which causes the

endometrium to double in thickness and the
uterine glands to mature.
 The uterine glands produce a thick mucoid

secretion in the secretory phase of the uterine

cycle.
 The thick endometrium with its mucoid layer is ready to
receive the fertilised ovum(developing embryo).
 If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum
degenerates.
 Since the corpus luteum produces oestrogen and
progesterone, the hormone level drop when it
degenerates.
 The endometrium disintegrates and menstruation occurs.
 The start of menstruation marks day 1 of the 28-day
uterine and ovarian cycle. When the cycle begins anew,
the anterior pituitary increases production of FSH and a
new follicle begins to mature.