Sexual Reproduction in

humans
Part 3-fertilisation and pregnancy
Fertilisation
 The union of two gametes to produce a zygote.
 The gametes contain haploid nuclei and the zygote

develops into a new individual.

 In human fertilisation, the motile sperm must travel to

the stationary egg.

 The female cervix may contain a mucus plug that the

sperm has to pass through.

 Sperm are viable for approx 6 days inside the female

reproductive tract while the egg is only viable for one

day.
 Only one of many millions of sperm penetrates the

egg to fertilise it.

Implantation
 When a sperm fertilises an egg, an embryo starts to develop in the
oviduct.

 A few days after fertilisation, the embryo travels to the uterus and
implants into the thick endometrium.

 The placenta immediately starts to develop.

 The placenta is made up of both maternal and embryonic tissues.

 It is a specialised organ that exchanges gases, nutrients and other

chemicals between the fetal blood and the maternal blood.

 The placenta produces human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which

is necessary to maintain the corpus luteum and prevent it from
degenerating until the placenta starts to produce its own
progesterone and oestrogen.
Implantation cont’d
 These two hormones feedback to the anterior
pituitary and stop the production of FSH and
LH and prevent new follicles from maturing.

 Progesterone and oestrogen maintain the

endometrium so there is no menstruation
during pregnancy.
Fertilisation of the egg and
implantation of the embryo
Embryonic and fetal development
 The length of time from conception to birth is approx
9 months.
 Conception is the process of fertilisation followed by

implantation in the uterus.

 After conception, the female is pregnant.

 Pregnancy is also called gestation.

 Embryonic development occurs during months 1-2

after conception and fetal development occurs in

months 3-9.
 During the embryonic period, the major organs of the

body form and during the fetal period, the organs

develop fully.
 All vertebrate embryos have three embryonic
germ layers.
 These three layers called ectoderm (outer

germ layer), mesoderm(middle germ layer)

and endoderm(inner germ layer).
 Extra-embryonic membranes surround the

fetus and have specialised functions in

protecting and nourishing it.
 The membranes are the chorion, the amnion

and the allantois.

 Chorion-
◦ Functions in gas exchange between mother and fetus.
◦ It develops into the fetal half of the placenta.
 Amnion-
◦ Contains the amniotic fluid that bathes the developing
embryo.
◦ Amniotic fluid acts as a buffer or cushion to protect the
fetus from physical damage and mechanical stress.
◦ Amniotic fluid prevents the fetus from being trapped
and squeeze against the uterine wall and other tissues.
 Allantois-
◦ Collects nitrogenous wastes (urea) created by
metabolic activity within the fetus and transfers
them to the mother for excretion.

Blood vessels from the allantois develop into

umbilical blood vessels in the umbilical cord.
Structure and function of the
placenta
 Placenta
◦ Gas, nutrient and waste exchange between fetus and
mother
◦ Disc shape
◦ Functions as an endocrine organ secreting hormones
◦ Water crosses by osmosis, mineral ions by active
transport and maternal antibodies that are necessary
for passive immunity pass by diffusion.
◦ Provides a barrier to diseases but some viruses can
cross and infect fetus
◦ Begins to form when the embryo implants and is fully
formed by the tenth week after implantation.
 Placenta:
◦ Has 2 sides-fetal side(developed from the chorion)
and maternal side(uterine tissues)
◦ The chorionic villi are surrounded by maternal
blood.
◦ Exchange takes place across plasma membranes of
the chorionic villi.
Picture of a placenta
 Umbilical cord-
◦ Contains the umbilical arteries and one vein
◦ Maternal blood is transported to the placenta in
arteries and leaves in veins.
◦ Fetal blood enters the placenta in arteries(umbilical
arteries) and travels through the capillaries in the
chorionic villi, it then leaves placenta via a vein
(umbilical vein) and the fetal blood occurs in the
placenta.
◦ Umbilical artery carry deoxygenated blood,
umbilical vein carry oxygenated blood.
 Umbilical cord-
◦ Lifeline that attaches the placenta to the fetus and
any impairment in blood flow within the cord can
be catastrophic for the fetus.

Harmful chemicals found in cigarettes, alcohol and

some illicit drugs can cross the placenta and
damage the developing organ systems in the fetus.
 Fetal alcohol syndrome-
◦ Can occur if a mother consumes alcohol during
pregnancy.
◦ Symptoms:
 Mental retardation
 Growth defects
 Abnormal facial features
 Central nervous system defects
 Effects of smoking:
◦ Nicotine constricts blood vessels and reduces the
amount of the nutrient that the fetus receives
leading to growth retardation in the womb.
◦ Carbon monoxide has a greater affinity for
haemoglobin than oxygen and this leads to a lower
rate of respiration in the mother. Lower rate of
respiration causes reduced growth and reduced
birth mass.
 Folic acid (folate)-necessary for the baby to
develop a healthy nervous system, and
calcium is required for the baby’s bones and
teeth.
 Lack of folate can cause spina bifida.

◦ Incomplete development of the brain, spinal cord

and protective coverings.
◦ to close properly during the first month of
pregnancy.
 Calcium-
◦ If a mothers diet is short in calcium, it is withdrawn
from the mother’s bones and transferred to the
fetus.
◦ Calcium and vitamin deficiency during pregnancy
can lead to development of rickets in infants.
◦ What is the importance of Iron and protein in the
mother’s diet?
Pregnancy
 Pregnancy:
◦ Divided into 3 periods:
 First trimester(month 1-3)
 Second trimester (month 4-6)
 Third trimester(7-9)
First trimester
 During the first week after fertilisation, the
embryo travels down the oviduct and implants in
the uterus.
 The embryo undergoes cell division or cleavage

as it travels, until it forms a morula.

 Morula consists of newly formed cells.
 By approx the 5th day after fertilisation, the

morula transforms into a blastocyst.

 In the blastocyst, the cells rearrange themselves

into a single layer surrounding a cavity filled with

fluid and an inner cell mass.
 The single layer of outer cells of the blastocyst is
called trophoblast.
 The trophoblast develops by adding more cells
until it gives rise to the chorion.
 The inner cell mass of the blastocyst gives rise to
the fetus.
 By the end of the first seven days, the embryo
begins the process of implanting in the uterus.
 The uterus trophoblast secretes enzymes to
digest some of the tissue and blood vessels of the
endometrium and burrows.
 During the second week, the trophoblast
starts to secrete HCG, which prevents the
corpus luteum from degenerating.
 HCG is present only in the blood of pregnant

women and the presence of this hormone is

the basis of pregnancy testing.
 As the second week progresses, the inner cell

mass of the trophoblast detaches from the

membrane and gastrulation occurs.
 In gastrulation, the inner cell mass flattens
into the embryonic disk.
 The embryonic disc forms the ectoderm,

endoderm and mesoderm which will give rise

to the organs and all the other structures of
the human body.
 The first organ in the developing embryo

appear in the third week.

◦ Nervous system
◦ heart
 In the development of the nervous system, a
thickening appears along the dorsal length of the
embryo, invagination occurs and neural folds
appear.
 The neural folds meet at the midline and the neural

tube forms.
 The skeletal rod develops into the vertebral column

and the nerve chord gives rise to the spinal cord.

 When the heart begins to develop, it begins to

pump blood even though the chambers of the

heart are not fully formed.
 During the first trimester, the embryo is
rapidly growing and mitosis and cell
differentiation occur at a rapid rate.
 The development of the organs in the human

fetus is compete eight weeks after conception

but the organs must then mature so that they
can function properly.
 During weeks 4 and 5, the body stalk connects the tail end of
embryo with the chorion.
 The chorion develops finger-like projections called chorionic
villi that increase the area for gas exchange with the mother.
 The allantois is contained within the body stalk.
 The blood vessels of the allantois become the umbilical blood
vessels.
 The umbilical cord then develops until it is fully formed.
 Limb buds appear and these are the forerunners of the arms and
legs.
 The head of the embryo enlarges and the eyes, ears and nose
are recognizable.
 Chorionic villi sampling can be performed after 2 months of
pregnancy.(determine sex and presence of genetic diseases)
 During weeks 6-8, the head and neck region
develop and the brain starts to grow.
 The nervous system, which started its

development in the third week, is advanced

enough to permit reflex actions such as
startle response to an unexpected touch.
Second trimester
 The embryo starts out the size of a pin head
as it grows into a fetus it is the size of a small
tablet.
 During months 3-9 the fetus increases in size

dramatically to approximately 3kg in weight

and 50cm in length.
 The genitalia form in the third month and in

the fourth month the fetus can flex its limbs

to avoid discomfort and the mother can feel
these movements.
 Also at the 4th month, the fetal heart is
beating and the organ systems are
functioning.
 The hair, eyebrows, eyelashes and nails form.
 Fetal skin is wrinkled due to its fast growth.
 Fetal skin is covered in a waxy substance

called vernix caseosa, which protects the skin

from the watery amniotic fluid.
Third trimester
 After fetal brain is fully developed, the
hypothalamus causes the pituitary to stimulate
the adrenal cortex of the brain and androgens
are release into the fetal bloodstream.
 Androgens are the male sex steroids.
 Androgens are converted to oestrogen in the

placenta, which then stimulate the production of

prostaglandin and oxytocin.
 Oestrogen, prostaglandin and oxytocin act

together to cause the uterus to contract and start

the birthing process.
 Mechanical stimuli for birthing result from the
stretching of the uterus by the fetus and the
pressure of the head of the fetus on the cervix.
 During the first stage of birth, the cervix dilates

to allow the baby’s head and body to pass and

the amnion bursts.
 During the second stage, the baby exits through

the vagina and the umbilical cord is cut.

 During the third and final stage, the placenta and

fetal membranes are detached and expelled

though the vagina.
Lactation
 The female breast is the organ of lactation.
 Lactation is the production of milk by cells

within the breast called alveoli.

 The breast contains 15-24 lobules each of

which has a mammary duct;the ducts all that

converge at the breast nipple.
 The alveoli are the blind sacs at the end of

the mammary ducts.

Lactation continued
 Prolactin is the hormone that causes the alveoli
to produce milk.
 The anterior pituitary produces prolactin and it
is suppressed during pregnancy by the
feedback inhibition of oestrogen and
progesterone.
 After the baby is born, milk production begins.
 Colostrum is the first fluid produced by the
breast and it contains proteins, antibodies and
fats.