ANGULAR KINETICS

HUMAN
OF
MOVEMENT
 CONTEN
T
 Angular analogues of mass, force, momentum, and impulse

Why changes in the configuration of a rotating airborne body can produce changes in the
body’s angular velocity

 Angular analogues of Newton’s laws of motion

 Define centripetal force and explain where and how it acts

 Quantitative problems relating to the factors that cause or modify angular motion
◦ Why do sprinters run with more swing phase flexion at the knee than do
distance runners?
◦ Why do dancers and ice skaters spin more rapidly when their arms are
brought in close to the body?
◦ How do cats always land on their feet?
◦ In this chapter, we explore concepts pertaining to angular kinetics, from
the perspective of the similarities and differences between linear and
angular kinetic quantities.
RESISTANCE
TOANGULAR
ACCELERATIO
N
 1- MOMENT OF
INERTIA
Inertia is a body’s tendency to resist acceleration
◦ Although inertia itself is a concept rather than a quantity that can be measured in units,
◦ A body’s inertia is directly proportional to its mass (fig 14-1)
◦ Newton’s second law,
◦ Greater a body’s mass, the greater its resistance to linear acceleration
◦ Therefore,
◦ Mass is a body’s inertial characteristic for considerations relative to linear motion
◦ R to angular acceleration is also a function of a body’s mass
◦ The greater the mass, the greater the resistance to angular acceleration
◦ Relative ease or difficulty of initiating or halting angular motion depends on an additional
factor:
◦ The distribution of mass with respect to the axis of rotation
◦ Consider the baseball bats shown in Fig 14-2
◦ Suppose a player warming up in on-deck circle adds a weight ring to the bat he is swinging
◦ Relative ease of swinging the bat be greater with the weight positioned near the striking end of the bat or with the
weight near the bat’s grip????
◦ Similarly, is it easier to swing a bat held by the grip (the normal hand position) or a bat turned
around and held by the barrel?
◦ Experimentation with a baseball bat or some similar object makes it apparent that:
◦ More closely concentrated the mass is to the axis of rotation, the easier it is to swing the object
◦ Conversely, the more mass is positioned away from the axis of rotation, the more difficult
it is to initiate (or stop) angular motion
◦ Resistance to angular acceleration, depends not only on the amount of mass possessed by an object but
also on the distribution of that mass with respect to the axis of rotation
◦ Inertial property for angular motion must therefore incorporate both factors
◦ The inertial property for angular motion is moment of inertia,
◦ Represented as “I”

◦ Every body is composed of particles of mass, each with its own particular distance
from a given axis of rotation. The I for a single particle of mass may be represented
as the following:
◦ I =mr2
◦ In “I” this formula, m is the particle’s mass and r is the particle’s radius of rotation
◦ The of an entire body is the sum of the “I” of all the mass particles the object contains
(fig 14-3)
◦ I =∑mr2
◦ The distribution of mass with respect to the axis of rotation is more important than
the total amount of body mass in determining resistance to angular acceleration, …..????
◦ B/c r is squared
◦ I =mr2
◦ Since r is the distance between a given particle and an axis of rotation, values of r change as the
axis of rotation changes
◦ When a player grips a baseball bat,
◦ “choking up” on the bat reduces the bat’s moment of inertia with respect to the axis of rotation
at the player’s wrists, and concomitantly increases the relative ease of swinging the bat.
◦ Little League baseball players often unknowingly make use of this concept when
swinging bats that are longer and heavier than they can effectively handle.
Within human body,
◦ Distribution of mass with respect to an axis of rotation can dramatically influence the relative ease or difficulty of
moving the body limbs
For example, during gait,
◦ The distribution of a given leg’s mass, and therefore its “I” with respect to the primary axis of rotation at the hip,
depends largely on the angle present at the knee
In sprinting,
◦ Max angular acceleration of the legs is desired, and considerably more flexion at the knee is present during the swing phase than while
running at slower speeds
◦ This greatly reduces the moment of inertia of the leg with respect to the hip, thus reducing resistance to hip flexion

Runners who have leg morphology involving;

◦ Mass distribution closer to the hip, with more massive thighs and slimmer lower legs than others, have a smaller moment of inertia of the leg
with respect to the hip
◦ This is an anthropometric characteristic that is advantageous for sprinters

During walking,
◦ In which minimal angular acceleration of the legs is required,
◦ Flexion at the knee during the swing phase remains relatively small,
◦ And the leg’s “I” with respect to the hip is relatively large
 Moment of inertia (“I” )
???

◦Inertial property for rotating bodies representing resistance to angular acceleration;

based on both mass and the distance the mass is distributed
from the axis of rotation
◦ The more closely mass is distributed to the axis of rotation the easier it is to
initiate or stop angular motion.
 Determining Moment of Inertia
◦ Assessing “I” for a body with respect to an axis by measuring the distance of each particle of body mass
from an axis of rotation and then applying the formula is obviously impractical
◦ In practice, mathematical procedures are used to calculate “I” for bodies of regular geometric shapes
and known dimensions
◦ Because the human body is composed of segments that are of irregular shapes and
heterogeneous mass distributions,
◦ Either experimental procedures or mathematical models are used to approximate “I” values for individual body
segments and for the body as a whole in different positions.
◦ “I” for the human body and its segments has been approximated by using average
measurements from cadaver studies, measuring the acceleration of a swinging limb, employing
photogrammetric methods, and applying mathematical modeling.
◦ Once moment of inertia for a body of known mass has been assessed, the value may be characterized
using the following formula:
◦ I =mk2
◦ I is moment of inertia with respect to an axis,
◦ M is total body mass,
◦ And k is a distance known as the radius of gyration

◦ Radius of gyration
◦ Represents the object’s mass distribution with respect to a given axis of rotation
◦ It is the distance from the axis of rotation to a point at which the mass of the body can theoretically be
concentrated without altering the inertial characteristics of the rotating body
◦ This point is not the same as the segmental CG (fig 14-4).
◦ Radius of gyration is based on r2 for individual particles, it is
always longer than the radius of rotation
◦ Length of the k changes as axis of rotation changes
◦ As mentioned earlier,
◦ it is easier to swing a baseball bat when the bat is grasped by the barrel end rather than
by the bat’s grip…???
◦ K for a body segment such as the forearm is greater with respect to the wrist
than with respect to the elbow
◦ K is a useful index of moment of inertia when a given body’s
resistance to rotation with respect to different axes
◦ Units of I (kg m2)
 Radius of gyration
◦ Distance from the axis of rotation to a point where the body’s
mass could be concentrated without altering its rotational
characteristics

◦ Because there are formulas available for calculating “I” of regularly

shaped
solids, some investigators have modeled the human body as a composite of various
geometric shapes
 Human Body Moment of Inertia
“I” can only be defined with respect to a specific axis of rotation
◦ Axis of rotation for a body segment in:
◦ sagittal and frontal plane motions is typically an axis passing through the center of a
body segment’s proximal joint
◦ When a segment rotates around its own longitudinal axis, its I is quite different from its “I ”
during flexion and extension or abduction and adduction, because its mass distribution,
◦ Therefore “I ”, is markedly different with respect to this axis of rotation
◦ Fig 14-5 Difference in the lengths of the “k” for the forearm with respect to the transverse
and longitudinal axes of rotation
 The I of the human body as a whole is also different with respect
to different axes
PRINCIPAL AXES
◦ 3 mutually perpendicular axes passing through the total body center of gravity
PRINCIPAL MOMENT OF INERTIA
◦ Total-body moment of inertia relative to one of the principal axes
◦ When body assumes a tucked position during a somersault,
◦ its principal “I” about the transverse axis is clearly less than when the body
is in anatomical position
◦ Divers performing a somersaulting dive undergo changes in “I ” about the
transverse axis on the order of 15 kgm2 to 6.5 kgm2 as the body goes from a
layout position to a pike position (7).
◦ As children grow from childhood through adolescence and into adulthood,
developmental changes result: in changing proportions of body
◦ Segment lengths,
◦ Masses,
◦ And radii of gyration,
◦ All affecting segment “I ”
◦ Segment “I” affect
◦ Resistance to angular rotation,
◦ Therefore performance capability, in sports such as gymnastics and diving
◦ Because of smaller moments of inertia,
◦ Smaller gymnasts have an advantage in performing skills involving whole-body rotations
◦ Despite the fact that larger gymnasts may have greater strength and be able to
generate more
◦ Several prominent female gymnasts who achieved world-class status
 ANGULAR
MOMENTU
M
 ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
The quantity of motion that an object possesses is referred to as its momentum
◦ Linear momentum is the product of the linear inertial property (mass) and linear velocity
The quantity of angular motion that a body possesses is likewise known as angular momentum
◦ Angular momentum, represented as H, is the product of the angular inertial property
(moment of inertia) and angular velocity
For linear motion: M= mv
For angular motion: H= I w
Or: H = mk2w

Three factors affect the magnitude of a body’s angular momentum:

(a) its mass (m),
(b) the distribution of that mass with respect to the axis of rotation (k), and
(c) the angular velocity of the body (w).
 If a body has no angular velocity, it has no angular momentum

As mass or angular velocity increases, angular momentum increases

proportionally

Angular momentum is the distribution of mass with respect to the axis of rotation,
because angular momentum is proportional to the square of the radius of gyration
Units of angular momentum kgm2/s.
◦ For a multi segmented object such as the human body,
◦ angular momentum about a given axis of rotation is the sum of the angular momenta of the individual body
segments
◦ During an airborne somersault,
◦ The H of a single segment, such as the lower leg, with respect to the principal axis of rotation passing through the total
body CG consists of two components:
◦ Local term and remote term.
◦ Local term is based on the segment’s H about its own segmental cg
◦ Remote term represents the segment’s H about the total body CG.
◦ H for this segment about a principal axis is the sum of the local term and the remote term:
◦ H= Is ws + m r2 wg
◦ In the local term, Is is the segment’s moment of inertia and ws is the segment’s angular velocity, both with respect
to a transverse axis through segmental own CG
◦ In the remote term, m the segment’s mass, r is the distance between the total body and segmental cgs, and wg is the
angular velocity of the segmental CG about the principal transverse axis (fig14- 7).
◦ The sum of the angular momenta of all the body segments about a principal axis yields the
total-body angular momentum about that axis.
◦ During takeoff from a springboard or platform,
◦ A competitive diver must attain sufficient M to reach the necessary height and sufficient H to
perform the required number of rotations
◦ For multiple rotation, non twisting platform dives,
◦ H generated at takeoff increases as the rotational requirements of the dive increase
◦ When a twist is also incorporated into a somersaulting dive, the H required is further
increased
◦ Inclusion of a twist during forward one-and-a-half springboard dives is associated with
increased H at takeoff of 6–19%
◦ adding a somersault while rotating in a tuck rather than a pike position also requires a small
increase in H
 Transfer of Angular Momentum
Although H remains constant in the absence of external torques,
◦ Transferring angular velocity at least partially from one principal axis of
rotation to another is possible
◦ Occurs when diver changes from a primarily somersaulting rotation to one that is
primarily twisting, and vice versa
◦ Airborne performer’s angular velocity vector does not necessarily occur in the same
direction as the H vector
◦ Body’s somersaulting angular momentum and its twisting H to be altered in midair,
◦ Though the vector sum of the two (the total H) remains constant in magnitude and
direction.
◦ Asymmetrical arm movements and rotation of the hips (termed hula
movement)
◦ Can tilt the axis of rotation out of the original plane of motion (fig 14-10).
◦ The less-often-used hula movement can produce tilting of the principal axis of rotation when the body
is somersaulting in a piked position
◦ These asymmetrical movements can be used to generate twist and to eliminate twist

◦ Even when total-body H is zero,

◦ Generating a twist in midair is possible using skillful manipulation of a body
composed of at least two segments.
Change in Angular Momentum
◦ When external torque does act, it changes the amount of H present in a system
◦ Just as with changes in M, changes in H depend not only on:
◦ Magnitude and direction of acting external torques
◦ But also on the length of the time interval over which each torque acts
◦ linear impulse= Ft
◦ angular impulse= Tt
◦ When angular impulse acts on a system, result is a change in total H of the system The impulse–
momentum relationship for angular quantities may be expressed as the following:
Tt=∆H
=(I w)2 - (I w)1
 ◦ Tt=∆h
◦ =(I w)2 - (I w)1
◦ Symbols T, t, H, I, and w represent torque, time, H, moment of inertia, and angular velocity,
respectively
◦ Subscripts 1 and 2 denote initial and second or final points in time
◦ B/c ANGULAR IMPULSE change in angular momentum equal to the product of torque
and time interval over which the torque acts
Significant changes in an object’s H may result from the action of a large torque over a small time
interval or from the action of a small torque over a large time interval
◦ TORQUE is the product of a force’s magnitude and the perpendicular distance to
the axis of rotation, both of these factors affect angular impulse
◦ H for total body rotations executed during aerial skills is primarily derived from angular impulse
created by the reaction force of the support surface during takeoff
◦ During back dives performed from a platform, the major angular impulse is produced during the final
weighting of the platform, when the diver comes out of a crouched position through extension at the hip, knee,
and ankle joints and executes a vigorous arm swing simultaneously
◦ The vertical component of the platform reaction force, acting in front of the diver’s CG, creates most
of the backward angular momentum required (Fig 14-13)
 ANGULAR ANALOGUES
OF NEWTON’S LAWS OF
MOTION Newton’s laws of motion may also be stated in terms of angular motion
It is necessary to remember that torque and moment of inertia are the angular equivalents of
force and mass in substituting terms
Newton’s First Law
◦ Angular version of the 1st law of motion may be stated as follows:
A rotating body will maintain a state of constant rotational motion unless acted on by an
external torque
◦ In the analysis of human movement in which mass remains constant throughout, this
angular analogue forms the underlying basis for the principle of conservation of H
◦ Because angular velocity may change to compensate for changes in “I” resulting from alterations in
the radius of gyration, the quantity that remains constant in the absence of external torque is H.
Newton’s Second Law
◦ Newton’s second law may be stated algebraically and in words as the following:

T= I
A net torque produces angular acceleration of a body that is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the torque, in the same direction as the torque, and inversely proportional
to the body’s moment of inertia
In accordance with Newton’s second law for angular motion, angular acceleration of the forearm is
directly proportional to magnitude of net torque at the elbow and in the direction (flexion) of the net
torque at the elbow
◦ The greater the moment of inertia is with respect to the axis of rotation at the elbow,
the smaller is the resulting angular acceleration
Newton’s Third Law
Law of reaction stated as;
For every torque exerted by one body on another, there is an equal and opposite
torque exerted by the second body on the first
◦ When a baseball player forcefully swings a bat, rotating the mass of the upper body,
◦ A torque is created around the player’s longitudinal axis
◦ If batter’s feet are not firmly planted, the lower body tends to rotate around the longitudinal axis
in opposite direction
◦ However, since the feet usually are planted, the torque generated by the upper body is
translated to the ground, where the earth generates a torque of equal magnitude and
opposite direction on the cleats of the batter’s shoes
CENTRIPETAL
FORCE
 CENTRIPETAL
FORCE
◦ Bodies undergoing rotary motion around a fixed axis are also subject to a linear force
◦ When an object attached to a line is whirled around in a circular path and then released,
◦ The object flies off on a path that forms a tangent to the circular path it was following at the point at which it was released,
since this is the direction it was traveling in at the point of release (fig 14-14)
Centripetal force prevents the rotating body from leaving its circular path while rotation occurs around a
fixed axis
◦ The direction of a centripetal force is always toward the center of rotation;
◦ This is the reason it is also known as center-seeking force
◦ Centripetal force produces the radial component of the acceleration of a body traveling on a curved path
Evident from both equations, speed of rotation is most influential factor on magnitude of centripetal force, b/c centripetal force is
proportional to square of velocity or angular velocity
When a cyclist rounds a curve, the ground exerts
centripetal force on the tires of the cycle
◦ The forces acting on the cycle/cyclist system are weight,
friction, and the ground reaction force (Fig 14- 15)
◦ The horizontal component of ground reaction force and laterally
directed friction provide centripetal force, which also creates a
torque about the cycle/ cyclist CG
◦ To prevent rotation toward outside of curve, cyclist must lean to
the inside of the curve so that moment arm of system’s weight
relative to contact point with ground is large enough to produce an
oppositely directed torque of equal magnitude
◦ In the absence of leaning into the curve, the cyclist would have to
reduce speed to reduce the magnitude of ground reaction force, in
order to prevent loss of balance