

Rn  n a x̂

R n1,n2  n1a1 xˆ1  n2 a2 xˆ2

Rn1,n 2,n 3  n1a1 xˆ1  n2 a2 xˆ2  n3 a3 xˆ3
In general,
 n
R   ni ai xˆi
i 1
 A B C D
θ θ

θ θ
A a B a C a D
 AD  a  2a cos
 n a  a 1  2 cos 
n 1
cos 
2
p

2
 2
p cos   n 

 2 1  2
1 2
1 3
2 3

0 0 4
2
1 2
1 6
2 6
2 1 0 or 2  1
Rank is the minimum number of integrally
independent basis vectors.
Difference between lattice and quasilattice?

 1  n 
X n  a n    
    
 x   Floor function
 x   x
where,  x  is the fractional part of x.
 1 5
 is a quadratic irrational.
2
1
 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1  ............
This is known as continued fraction representation
of an irrational number.
Let us see if Xn also generates periodic set of
points?
 Symmetry Elements
0 D Inversion
1 D Rotation Axis
2 D Mirror Plane
•Proper Rotation(only rotation)

•Improper Rotation
Rotation + Inversion( t ) Rotoinversion
~
Rotation + Reflection( t ) Rotoreflection
3-fold

Order of the
group = 3
3

Order of the
group = 6
~
3

Order of the
group = 6
 ~
• Do this exercise for 5-fold, 5 ,5
• Test such representation at your place
for all the permissible crystallographic
rotations.
 METALS AND ALLOYS

Importance of metals and alloys

Alloys and Compounds

Solid solution versus Liquid solution

Solid Solution – Atomic mixing in solid state

Liquid Solution – One of the constituents is liquid and other is solid

Solid Solution : Solutes and solvents are interchangeable

 SOLID SOLUTION
• Substitutional solid solution Cu-Zn, Au-Cu, Al-Cu
• Interstitial solid solution Fe-C
• Hume-Rothery empirical rules of extensive solid solubility
1. Solute and Solvent (Δ d< 15%)
2. Difference in electronegativity should be small.
3. Valency and crystal structure should be same.
System Crystal Radius of Valency Electronega
Structure atoms (A) tivity

Ag-Au Ag FCC 1.44 1 1.9

Au FCC 1.44 1 2.4

Cu-Ni Cu FCC 1.28 1 1.9

Ni FCC 1.25 2 1.8

Ge-Si Ge DC 1.22 4 1.8

Si DC 1.18 4 1.8
 UNARY SYSTEM AND BINARY SYSTEM
• Gibbs Phase Rule
f=C–p+2
f = Degrees of freedom
c = Number of components
p = Number of phases in equilibrium
• is a single component system.
H 2O
• is a binary component system.
Al 2 O 3  Cr2 O 3
• Cu - Zn is a binary component.
X Al2O3  XCr2O3  1
• For n component
X  Xsystem
1
Cu Zn

X
• Note: If XCA is B no.
the X C of.......... 1
components then C-1 is the no. of
compositional variables ( For - No compositional variables)
H 2O
 Contd....
• Compositional Variable : C – 1
• External Variables : T , P
• For all Engineering practice, P is constant.
• All modifications of phases should be studied with respect to T.
• For C = 1;
f=C–p+2
p = 3 for f=0 ( Triple point H 2 O )
f=C–p+1
p=2 for f = 0 ( Melting point, Freezing point)
• For C = 2;
f=C–p+1
p=3;f=0
p=2;f=1
p=1;f=2
• Dimensionality of the phase diagram axes: T, composition(X)
 EXAMPLES OF PHASE DIAGRAMS

Al2 O 3  Cr2 O 3 Binary Phase Diagram[Raghavan]

 Contd...

Cu-Ni binary phase diagram [ ASM Metal Handbook Alloy Phase Diagrams]
 Contd....

Pb-Sn Binary phase diagram [ ASM Metal Handbook Alloy Phase Diagrams]
 Contd...

Fe-C Binary phase diagram [ ASM Metal Handbook Alloy Phase Diagrams]
 INVARIANT REACTIONS
• Peritectic Reaction
At 1495 C 

L(0.47%C )   - ferrite(0.08%C )  Austenite(0.18%C )

• Eutectic Reaction
At 1147 C


L(4.3%C )  Austenite (2.1%C )  Cementite (6.67%C )

• Eutectoid Reaction
At 727  C
Austenite(0.8%C )    ferrite(0.02%C )  Cementite(6.67%C )
 The Lever Rule

Illustration of the lever rule [ Raghavan ]

 Application of Phase Diagrams

The zone refining process is based on the fact that solid to crystallize first
from a melt is usually purer in A than liquid [ Raghavan ]
 Implementation of Zone-refining
Heating Coil

Direction of heating

A-rich Impurity rich

 CRYSTALLINE IMPERFECTIONS
1. Point imperfections

2. Line imperfections

3. Surface imperfections

4. Volume imperfections.
 0-D Defects

Point imperfections in an elemental crystal: (a) vacancy; (b)

substitutional impurity; (c) interstitial impurity; and (d) field ion
micrograph of platinum showing a vacancy. [(d) Courtesy: E.W.
Mueller.] [ Raghavan]
 Contd...

Point imperfections in an ionic crystal: (a) Frenkel

defect; and (b) Schottky defect. [ Raghavan ]
 Contd...

Example Find the equilibrium concentration of

vacancies in aluminium and nickel at 0 K, 300 K
and 900 K.
Contd....
 1-D Defects

The Burgers circuit for an edge dislocation: (A)

Perfect crystal and (B) crystal with dislocation
[R.E. Reedhill and Abbaschain]
 Contd.....

This three-dimensional view of a crystal containing an edge

dislocation shows that the dislocation forms the boundary on
the slip plane between a region that has been sheared and a
region that has not been sheared [ R.E. Reedhill and
Abbaschain]
 Contd...

Three stages in the movement of an edge dislocation

through a crystal [ R.E. Reedhill and Abbaschain]
 Contd...

Two representations of a screw dislocation. Notice that

the planes in this dislocation spiral around the
dislocation like a left-hand screw [R.E. Reedhill and
Abbaschain]
 Contd....

The ways that the four basic orientations of a dislocation move

under the same applied stress: (A) Positive edge, (B) Negative
edge, (C) Left-hand screw, and (D) Right-hand screw [R.E. Reedhill
 Edge Dislocation
1. An edge dislocation lies perpendicular to its
Burgers vector.

2. An edge dislocation moves (in its slip plane) in

the direction of the Burgers vector ( slip
direction). Under a shear-stress a positive
dislocation moves to the right, a negative one
to the left.

[R.E. Reedhill and Abbaschain]

 Screw Dislocation
1. A screw dislocation lies parallel to its Burgers
vector.

2. A screw dislocation moves (in the slip plane)

in a direction perpendicular to the Burgers
vector (slip direction).

[R.E. Reedhill and Abbaschain]

For FCC and BCC metallic solids Burgers vectors are
close packed directions.

1
 110  for FCC
Example : 2
1
 111  for BCC
2

They are known as perfect dislocations

 Contd.....
• It is possible to show that energetically a dislocation
breaks into partials.
• The elastic strain energy E per unit length of a
dislocation of Burgers vector b is approximately
given by
E  b 2

where µ is the shear modulus of the crystal.

Dislocation reaction: 2b b+b
Energy Reaction:  ( 2b) 2  b 2  b 2
Contd....
 Example : Compute the line energy of dislocations
in BCC iron. The Burgers vector in iron is of the 1/2
<111> type. The shear modulus of iron is 80.2 GN m–2.
 Contd...
Solution : From the lattice parameter of BCC iron ( a  2.87 A)
we obtain the magnitude of the Burgers vector
2.87 3
b
2
 2.49A
The line energy of the dislocation
E  80.2 109  2.492 1020 / 2
 2.49 10-9 J / m.
 Contd...

An electron micrograph of a foil removed from an aluminum

specimen. Note the dislocations lying along a slip plane.
(Photograph courtesy of E.J. Jenkins and J. Hren.) [R.E. Reedhill and
Abbaschain]
 2-D Defects

The atomic arrangements at grain boundaries are

distorted and unrelated. [ Raghavan ]
 Contd....

A tilt boundary consists of equally spaced edge

dislocations of the same sign one above the other.
[ Raghavan]
 Contd....

• Grain boundary between BCC crystals 0.89 Jm–2

• Grain boundary between FCC crystals 0.85 J m–2

• Interface between BCC and FCC crystals 0.63 J m–2

 Contd.....

The atomic arrangement on one side of a twin

boundary is a mirror reflection of that on the
other side. [ Raghavan]
 Contd...

Annealing twins and grain boundaries in brass (J. Nutting and R.G.
Baker, The Microstructure of Metals, with permission from The
Institute of Metals, London.) [ Raghavan]