NERVE TISSUE

Objectives

• At the end of the lecture, students should be able to

describe;

• The basic organisation of the nervous system

• The histological components of the nervous system

• Applied anatomy of the nervous system

Basic organisation

• Nerve tissue is distributed throughout the body as an integrated

communications network

• Anatomically, the nervous system is divided into the central

nervous system, consisting of the brain and the spinal cord, and
the peripheral nervous system, composed of nerve fibres and
small aggregates of nerve cells called nerve ganglia
Definitions
A. Ganglion — a collection of neuron cell bodies situated in the PNS
B. Nucleus — this term is used in a special sense in neuroanatomy to
describe a collection of neuronal cell bodies in the CNS (accumulation
of gray matter)
C. Nerves — bundles of axons that extend out from the brain as cranial
nerves and from the spinal cord as spinal nerves (surrounded by
connective tissue sheaths)
D. Tract — a bundle of axons (nerve fibres) within the CNS (connective
tissue is absent)
Cell types present in the Nervous System

• Nervous tissue is made up of 2 types of cells;

• Neuroglia (Supporting cells)

• Neurons (structural & functional unit)

Histological Components
A. Supporting (non-neuronal) Cells— Glial cells provide support and
protection to neurons and outnumber neurons 10:1.
• Distinguished by their much smaller size as compare to neurons.
• Outnumber neurons in CNS by 9:1 ratio.
• Are mainly of six types: 4 of them are found in CNS
• Astrocytes
• Microglia
• Oligodendrocytes
• Ependymal cells
• 2 of them are found in PNS
• Satellite cells
• Schwann cells

• The CNS has four types and the PNS has two:
Astrocytes
• Star-shaped cells that play an active role in brain function by
influencing the activity of neurons.

• Derived from neural crest cells.

• Most abundant type of glial cells

• Function to physically support neurons.

• Brace the neurons & anchor them to the near by capillaries (create
BBB)
Oligodendrocytes

• The oligodendrocyte is the analog of the Schwann cell in the

central nervous system and is responsible for forming myelin
sheaths around brain and spinal cord axons.

• Myelin is an electrical insulator.

Microglia

• The smallest of all glial cells.

• Derived from embryonic mesenchyme.

• May transform into phagocytes within CNS and as such are refered to as
“Macrophages” of the CNS

• They represent the intrinsic immune effector cells of the CNS and
underlie the inflammation response that occurs following damage to
the central nervous system and the invasion of microorganisms.
Ependymal Cells

• Derived from neural crest cells.

• Epithelial-like cells that line the ventricles of the brain and

the central canal of the spinal cord.

• Help to form the choroid plexus of the ventricles

Schwann Cells

• Schwann cells are glia cells of the PNS, Derived from neural crest cells.

• They wrap individually around the shaft of peripheral axons, forming a

layer or myelin sheath along segments of the axon.

• The Schwann cell membrane, which forms the myelin sheath, is

composed primarily of lipids; the lipid serves as an insulator thereby
speeding the transmission rate of action potentials along the axon.
Satellite Cells

• Found in the peripheral nervous system

• Have a similar role to astrocytes in the CNS

• The supply nutrients to the surrounding neurons and offer

structural support to the neurons
Neurons

• Neurons are the structural and functional units of the

nervous system; they are specialized to conduct electrical
signals.

• Morphological features of neurons consist of 3 components

• Cell body, axon and dendrites
Cell body

• The expanded portion of the neuron that contains the nucleus;

• Stains basophilically due to the abundance of RER and

polyribosomes

• Cell Body Organelles include the Nucleus, Golgi apparatus and

clumps of RER & polyribosomes referred to as nissl bodies.
Axon

• Typically one per neuron;

• An extension of the cell body that is specialized for

conducting electrical Impulses (action potentials).

• Lacks nissl bodies and does not stain with routine histological
stains.

• Note: axons are either myelinated or non-myelinated.

• Most neurons have only one axon; very few have no axon at all.
• Although some neurons have short axons, axons are usually very long
processes.
• For example, axons of the motor cells of the spinal cord that innervate
the foot muscles may be up to 100 cm in length.
• All axons originate from a short pyramid-shaped region, the axon
hillock, that usually arises from the perikaryon.
• The plasma membrane of the axon is called the axolemma its
contents are known as axoplasm.
• In neurons that give rise to a myelinated axon, the portion of the axon
between the axon hillock and the point at which myelination begins is
called the initial segment.
• Occasionally, the axon, shortly after its departure from the cell body,
gives rise to branches known as collateral branches.
• Axons contain mitochondria, microtubules, neurofilaments, and some
cisternae of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
• The absence of polyribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum
emphasizes the dependence of the axon on the perikaryon for its
maintenance. If an axon is severed, its peripheral parts degenerate
and die
Dendrites
• Extensions of the cell body;

• Specialized to receive input from other neurons or from receptors;

• Contain nissl bodies in their proximal parts and thus the initial
portions of dendrites stain basophilically;

• Often have small protrusions, called dendritic spines, that expand the
dendritic surface area and serve as sites of synaptic contact.
Neuronal Classification
A. Anatomically/Structurally, neurons are classified by number of
processes:
1) Unipolar (pseudounipolar) Neuron — has one process that
bifurcates; the cell body of this neuronal type is found in spinal and
cranial ganglia.
2) Bipolar Neuron — has 2 processes (relatively rare; retina of eye and
certain cranial ganglia).
3) Multipolar Neuron — many processes; typically 1 axon and 2 or
more dendrites (most common type of neuron).
• B. Functionally, neurons are classified as:
• 1) Motor (Efferent) — related to innervation of muscle,
glands etc.; activation of these neurons leads to some motor
event (i.e., contraction of a muscle).
• 2) Sensory (Afferent) — related to the transfer of sensory
information (i.e., pain, touch, pressure, etc.); e.g., neurons of
spinal (dorsal root) ganglia.
• 3) Interneurons — neither motor or sensory (e.g., neurons
responsible for the various spinal reflexes).
Non Myelinated Axons
1) PNS — Non-myelinated axons are embedded in infoldings of the
plasma membrane of a chain of lemmocytes. Each lemmocyte typically
encloses 5-20 axons.
• Axoplasm clumps and stains poorly with routine histological stains.
• A group of axons and associated lemmocytes are surrounded by basal
lamina and endoneurium.
2) CNS — Nonmyelinated axons are not associated with
oligodendrocytes but run free without any type of ensheathment.
• They are separated from one another by astrocytic processes.
• Nervous tissue of the CNS does not contain connective tissue
other than that of the three meninges (dura mater,
arachnoid membrane and pia mater) and in the walls of large
blood vessels.

• Because of the absence of connective tissue, fresh CNS tissue

has a very soft, jelly-like consistency.
ganglia
• A ganglion is a collection of neuronal cell bodies

• The cell body is very large and surrounds a large and light nucleus.

• Surrounding the ganglion cells are a flattened layer of satellite cells.

• Ganglion cells are of course in contact with other parts of the nervous
system and with the peripheral tissues which they innervate.

• Consequently, nerve fibres will be visible close to or within the

ganglion.
Dorsal Root Ganglion
Cell bodies of sensory
neurons forming ganglia
just outside the spinal
cord
Cerebral Cortex
• Consists about six cell layers;
• Molecular – axons and dendrites
• External granular – densely packed settelite cells with small pyramidal cells
• External pyramidal – loosely packed settelite cells with medium pyramidal
cells
• Internal granular – densely packed settelite cells only
• Internal pyramidal – large pyramidal cells only (few settelite cells)
• Multiform- multiple sized pyramidal cells with loosely packed settelite cells
Cerebral cortex
Pyramidal shaped neurons
of the cerebral cortex with
a few glial cells
 Cerebellum

Showing the 3 histological layers

of the cerebellum
• Molecular layer- dendrites
• Purkinje cell layer
• Granular layer- small neurons
Motor Neurons
From the anterior grey horn of
the spinal cord
Regeneration
• This is functionally efficient only when the fibres and the
columns of Schwann cells are directed to the correct place.
• The possibility is good, however, since each regenerating fiber
gives origin to several processes, and each column of Schwann
cells receives processes from several regenerating fibers.
• In an injured mixed nerve, however, if regenerating sensory fibers
grow into columns connected to motor end plates that were
occupied by motor fibers, the function of the muscle will not be
reestablished.
Applied anatomy
1. Demyelination - the destructive removal of myelin, an
insulating and protective fatty protein that sheaths nerve cell
axons. When axons become demyelinated, they transmit the
nerve impulses 10 times slower than normal myelinated ones
and in some cases they stop transmitting action potentials
altogether. There are a number of clinical diseases associated
with the breakdown and destruction of the myelin sheath
surrounding brain, spinal cord or peripheral nerve axons.
• Multiple Sclerosis and its variants
• Neuromyelitis optica
• Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM)
• Acute necrotizing haemorrhagic encephalomyelitis (ANHE)

• Guillain-Barre Syndrome

2. Brain and Spinal Cord injuries

3. Tumors
• Glial cells are capable of reproduction, and when control over this
capacity is lost primary brain tumors result.
• Astrocytomas and glioblastomas are amongst the most deadly or
malignant forms of cancer.
• Virtually all cells of the nerve tissue generate tumors.
• Immature nerve cells produce medulloblastomas.
• Schwann cells produce schwannomas.
• Because adult neurons do not divide, they do not produce tumors.
END…