© Oxford University Press 2013. All Rights Reserved

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.
Definitions
J. M. Juran defined quality as “fitness for purpose.” Philip
Crosby defined quality as “conformance to specifications.”
A. V. Feigenbaum defines Total Quality Control (TQC) as:
“Total quality control is an effective system for integrating the
quality-development, quality-maintenance, and quality-
improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization
so as to enable marketing, engineering, production, and
service at the most economical levels which allow for full
customer satisfaction.”

Various Dimensions of Quality
Performance –
Safety – How much care
How well does the
the company has taken to
product perform
make the product safe for
with respect to its Features – What special
users before, during, or
intended use? For features does the product
after use? For example, a
examplegood have? For example, 1200 watt
TV having features to
picture and sound sound system, flat-picture tube,
protect eyes of viewers
effects of a TV. picture-in-picture feature, etc.
from harmful radiations.
in a TV.
Customer Service – How is the

behavior and treatment of the seller
Reliability – How much is the
with the customer before, during
probability of breakdowns, need
and after the sale of the product?
Various for adjustments, replacement of
E.g. the pleasant treatment given
Dimensions parts, etc. in the product? For
by the sales staff prompted a
of Quality example, a TV performing well
customer to buy another TV of the
every time it is switched on.
same brand from the same dealer.
Appearance – How Serviceability – How easily, cheaply,

pleasant is the outward and speedily can the product be
look, smell, taste, feel, or repaired and serviced? For example,
Durability – How long
sound of the product to the a company providing on-the-spot
can the product perform
customers? For example, a repairs of TV within one hour of
before needing any
super-thin flat TV (which customer complaint at nominal
repair or replacement of
can be hung on a wall like a charges.
parts? For example, a
picture)
TV gives best
performance for 10 years
without needing any
repair.

Costs of Quality
Cost of prevention of
defects – training &
performing Acceptance
Sampling of raw
materials, SQC, Six
Sigma and other
techniques
Cost of detecting defects

Cost of warranty
in the final product-
claims – This Costs of Outgoing inspection of
includes the loss of Quality products before being
goodwill on part of
shipped to customers
customers
Cost of scrap and

rework of defective
products – this includes
the extra paper work,
delays, rescheduling
required etc.

Deming’s Contribution to Total Quality
Management
• Consistency of purpose is a must for continual

improvement of the product.
• Continuous change and innovation is a must for survival.
• Quality cannot be achieved only by inspection.
• Eliminate wastes in every functional area, not only
production.
• Attitude of supervisors and managers towards workers
should be that of a facilitator.
• Remove the barriers between departments and individuals.
• Posters and slogans should be eliminated.

Deming’s Contribution to Total Quality Management
• Remove obstacles in the good workmanship of hourly

workers to instill a sense of pride in them.
• Vigorous programmes of retraining and education of
employees are a must.
• Top management’s commitment for ever-improving
quality is a must.
• Numerical targets and work standards may affect quality.
• Encourage workers to give quality improvement ideas
without fear.
• On-the-job training of employees is a must
• Lowest price should not be the criteria for selecting a
supplier.

Quality at Every Stage

Statistical Process Control
7.05 mm Upper Specification Limit

(USL)
M + 3.σM Upper Control Limit (UCL)
Targeted or Aimed-at Mean Central Line (CL)

M = 7.00 mm
M - 3.σM Lower Control Limit (LCL)
6.95 mm Lower Specification Limit (LSL)
Specification & Control Limits for the Diameter of a Pencil

Type I and Type II Errors

Trends in µ chart suggesting out-of-control situation

Process Capability Ratio

Process Capability Ratio for an Off-Center Process

Six Sigma

Steps in Implementing Six Sigma
DMAIC
• Step 1 – Define: Define the priorities of the customers with respect to
quality
• Step 2 – Measure : Measure the processes and the defects arising in the
product due to the process
• Step 3 – Analyze: Analyze the process to determine the most likely causes
of defects
• Step 4 – Improve : Improve the performance of the process and remove the
causes of the defects
• Step 5 – Control : Ensure that the improvements are maintained over time.

Defects per million opportunities
(DPMO)

Contrasting Six Sigma and TQM
TQM Six Sigma

• Self-directed work teams • Executive ownership
• Quality initiative • Business strategy execution
• Largely within a single system
function • Truly cross functional
• No mass training in • Focused training with
statistics and quality with verifiable return on
return on investment investment
• Quality oriented • Business results oriented

Acceptance Sampling

Quality Standards
Quality standards are of two types:
Generic standards These standards are set by national and international
quality certification bodies as a guidance, development, or evaluation of quality system
in an organization. ‘Generic’ means that the same standards can be applied to any
organization—large or small, producing any product or service, and in any sector of
activity—it could be a business enterprise, public administration department, or a
government department. E.g. ISO9001
•ISO 9001: This is the most comprehensive of the certificates for an organization
engaging in development / design, production, installation, and servicing
Two documents are provided by ISO as guidance to organizations for
understanding various aspects of a good quality system:
•ISO 9000: This document explains principal concepts and applications, guide to
selection and use.
•ISO 9004: This document explains principal concepts and applications, guide to
quality management, and quality system elements.

Quality Standards
Industry-related standards These standards are set by purchasing
bodies for a particular industry as the basic requirements for
purchasing products/services. For example, defence, aerospace,
nuclear industries, etc. usually have a set of guidelines for
purchasing due to overriding safety requirements. A new standard
came into existence in 1995–96 called COPC–2000 for customer
service providers such as BPOs. The Capability maturity model
(CMM) is another standard that has been developed by the
Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University,
USA and is applicable to software organizations.

ISO 14001

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