STRUCTURE AND

DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT,
STEM AND LEAF
Course code : BOT-307
Course title : Plant Anatomy
Presented to : Dr. Ejaz Hussian Siddique
• GROUP MEMBERS
RIDA MEHMOOD 19012506-006
AYESHA ABBAS 19012506-018
RAFIA MONEER 19012506-046
ANWAL ZAFAR                      19012506-050
FOQIA NAZ                            19012506-054
SHAKEEL KHAN                   19012506-086
STRUCTURE OF ROOT
 ROOTS
• Root has two main function :
      - Anchoring the plant in the soil 
      - Absorption of water and  minerals 
• Absorption takes place near the tips of roots through trichome called
root hair.
• Many roots stores food for plants e. g Carrot and Sweet potatoes.
STRUCTURE OF ROOT
• In vascular plants ,the root is organ of plant
that typically lies below the surface of soil.
• Roots can also be aerial or aeration, that is
growing up above the ground or especially
above water .
• The first root that comes from a plant is
called Radicle.
 ROOTS ARE VITAL TO PLANTS

• Roots are vital to plant in variety of ways : 

• They provide stability, store nutrients , and act as the primary
source of water and nutrient acquisition.
• In general, the root comprises of all parts of plant that lie
beneath the soil. 
• Including vascular tissues , that are continuous throughout the
root and shoot (stem,  leaves & flowers). 
 TYPES OF ROOTS AND ITX STRUCTURE

• There are three

different types of
root structure:
• Tap Root 
• Fibrous Root 
• Adventitious Root
 TAP ROOT

• Taproot is the largest ,most central and most

dominant root from which other roots sprout
laterally. 
• A taproot is somewhere straight and very thick. 
• This root function to tap deep sources of water. 
• It develops directly from Radicle. 
• Tap root produces branch roots called as lateral
roots. 
 ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS
• Roots that develop from any other part of plant body
that may be other than Radicle.
• This is common in seedless vascular plants and
grasses.
• These roots can be present underground or above the
ground.
• No single root stands out as the largest root in a
fibrous root system. 
• Fibrous roots grow fairly close to surface of ground.
• E.g Fibrous root system example: Coconut Palm 
 ROOT CAP

• A root apical meristem produces a Root Cap which consist of several

layers of cells. 
• The root caps serves as a protection for the root cells as it pushes
between the soil particles. 
• The root cap produces slimy polysaccharide called as Mucilage.
• Mucilage lubricates the passage of the root through the soil.
 ANATOMY OF ROOT
• In a cross section or transverse section, the root presents following
structures: 
1.  STELE
2.  PROTOSTELE
3.  EPIDERMIS
4.  CORTEX
5.  ENDODERMIS
6.  PERICYCLE 
7.  VASCULAR TISSUES 
 ANATOMY OF ROOT
• STELE
• The central part of root or stem.
• The zone internal to the epidermis
which contains specialized tissues
responsible.
 PERICYCLE AND ENDODERMIS 

• PERICYCLE: 
      A cell layer immediately encircling the stele that give rise to lateral
roots.
• ENDOXERMIS:
      The layer of cell around the stele that regulates the flow of substances
between cortex and vascular tissues.
DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT
 ROOT DEVELOPMENT
• Root growth begins with seed germination. 
• When the plant embryo emerges from the seed,
the radicle of the embryo forms the root system. 
• The tip of the root is protected by the root cap, a
structure exclusive to roots and unlike any other
plant structure. 
• The root cap is continuously replaced because it
gets damaged easily as the root pushes through
soil.
• The root cap is a shaped like a thimble and acts like a hard hat for the
root tip. 
• It is  a type of tissue at the tip of a plant root. It is also called calyptra.
 PRIMARY GROWTH
• Early root growth is one of the functions of the apical
meristem located near the tip of the root.
•  The meristem cells more or less continuously divide, producing
more meristem, root cap cells and undifferentiated root cells. 
• The latter become the primary tissues of the root, first undergoing
elongation, a process that pushes the root tip forward in the growing
medium.
•  Gradually these cells differentiate and mature into specialized cells
of the root tissues.
 ZONES OF ROOT GROWTH 
• Behind the root cap, within the first centimetre
or so, the root tip can be divided into three
zones:

• The zone of cellular division, which contains

the apical meristem, is the location immediately
behind the root cap where cells are actively
dividing via mitosis.
• The zone of cellular elongation is the
location where the newly formed cells
are growing, or increasing in length, to
add length to the root. 

• This process requires uptake of water,

which literally stretches the cells and
increases their size.
• The zone of cellular
maturation  is the location where
newly elongated cells complete
their differentiation into the
dermal, vascular, or ground tissues.

• Maturation is driven by changes in

gene expression.
 SECONDARY GROWTH
• Growth from apical meristems is known as primary growth, which
encompasses all elongation. 

• Secondary growth encompasses all growth in diameter, a major

component of woody plant tissues and many nonwoody plants.
• For example, storage roots of sweet potato have secondary growth
but are not woody. 

• Secondary growth occurs at the lateral meristems, namely the

vascular cambium and cork cambium. 

• The former forms secondary xylem and secondary phloem, while

the latter forms the periderm.
 HORMONES INVOLVED IN ROOT
DEVELOPMENT
• The main hormones responsible for root development include:
1. Auxin
•  Auxin promotes root initiation, root emergence and primary
root elongation.

2. Cytokinins
•  Regulate root apical meristem size and promote lateral root
elongation.
3. Gibberellins 
• Together with ethylene they promote crown primordia growth and
elongation. 
• Together with auxin they promote root elongation. Gibberellins
also inhibit lateral root primordia initiation.

4.  Ethylene
•   Ethylene promotes crown root formation.
STRUCTURE OF STEM
 STEM
• A part of plant that support
leaves or reproductive
structures.
• They may vary in size, such
as from a slender stalk to a
big tree trunk. 
• They grow above the ground. 
• First stem of a plant develop from part of a seed embryo
called as epicotyle.
 STEM FUNCTION
• Transport water and solutes
between roots and leaves.
• Stem in some plants are
photosynthetic.
• For example:
• Cacti
• Bamboo
• tomato
• In some plants stem have become adapted foe specialized
functions such as storage.
• For example:
• cacti
 TYPES OF AERIAL STEMS
Herbaceous stems
• Soft green stem
• Little growth in diameter 
• Tissues chiefly primary 
• Chiefly annual 
• Covered by epidermis   
 Woody stems
• Tough and not green. 
• Considerable growth in diameter. 
• Tissues chiefly secondary.
• Chiefly perennial.
• Covered by cork bark.
   EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEM 
• All stem s are recognizable from other plant
organs by the presence of nodes, internodes,
buds and leaves.
• Node: A node is a point on the stem from
which leaves or buds arise. 
• Internode: point between two nodes. 
Bud

• A bud is an undeveloped or embryonic

shoot which has the potential for
further plant growth. 
• It may develop into leave, flower or
both.
• Plants have three types of buds on
basic location, namely terminal bud
axillary bud, adventitious bud.
 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEM
• Internal structure of dicot stem
reveals the following features:
• Epidermis
• Cortex
• Vascular bundles and 
• Pith 
DEVELOPMENT OF STEM
 DEVELOPMENT  OF STEM
• Apical meristem at stem tip.
•  Increases stem length. 
•  Dormant before growing season begins. 
•  Protected by bud scales and by leaf primordia.
• Leaf Primordia is tiny embryonic leaves that develop into mature
leaves Longitudinal section through stem tip.
• Apical meristem cells form 3 primary meristems.
•   Protoderm  
   Gives rise to epidermis.
•  Procambium
   Produces primary xylem and phloem.
•  Ground Meristem
 Produces pith and cortex, both composed of
parenchyma cells Longitudinal section through
stem.
• Leaf primordia and bud primordia develop
into mature leaves and buds. 
• Traces branch off from cylinder of xylem and
phloem, and enter leaf or bud. 
• Trace - strand of xylem and phloem.
• Each trace leaves gap filled with parenchyma
in cylinder of vascular tissue, forming leaf
gap or bud gap.
• Narrow band of cells between 1° xylem and 1 °phloem may become
vascular cambium.
• Vascular cambium produces 2°xylem toward center and 2°phloem
toward surface.
• Corkcambium (= phellogen) produces cork cells with suberin and
phellodermcells. 
• Reduce water loss and protect stem against injury.  
• Lenticels - parenchyma cells in cork for exchange of gases.
 SPECIALIZED STEM
• Rhizomes 
 Horizontal stems that grow below-ground and have long to short
internodes. 
• For example
Irises
Grasses
Ferns 
• Runners 
 Horizontal stems that grow above ground and have long internodes 
• For example
 Strawberry
•  Stolons 
 Produced beneath surface of ground and tend to grow in different
directions
• For example
 Potato
•  Tubers 
 Swollen, fleshy, underground stem 
Store food 
• For example
 Potatoes - eyes of potato are nodes 
• Bulbs 
 Large buds surrounded by numerous fleshy leaves, with small stem at
lower end 
 Store food 
• For example
Onions
 Lilies
 Tulips
• Corms 
  Resemble bulbs, but composed almost entirely of stem tissue, with
papery leaves.
 Store food
• For example  
  Crocus and gladiolus 
• Cladophylls 
Flattened, leaf-life stems 
Modified for photosynthesis
• For example
Greenbriars 
 Orchids
Prickly pear cactus 
STRUCTURE OF LEAF
 LEAF
• A leaf is a thin, flattened organ, above ground and specialized for
photosynthesis.
• It originates from the shoot apical meristem as a bump of tissue know
as the leaf primordia.
• Leaf primordia are groups of cells that will form into new leaves.
• Leaf primordium develops into a leaf through cell division,
growth, and differentiation.
•  Photosynthesis is the primary function of the leaves.
 EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAF
• Parts of leaf
1. leaf blade
2. petiole
3. leaf base
 BLADE 
• The broad portion of a leaf.
• Apex - leaf tip. 
• Margin - leaf edge boundary area.
Margins can be smooth, jagged
(toothed), lobed, or parted. 
• PETIOLE - thin stalk that attaches the leaf to a stem. 
• STIPULES - leaf-like structures at the leaf base. 
 LEAF TISSUE
• Leaf tissues are composed of layers of plant cells.

• Different plant cell types form three main tissues  found in leaves. 

• A typical leaf has three regions, namely: Upper epidermis,

Mesophyll tissue layer and Lower epidermis.
LEAF TISSUE 

• The
dermal tissues
are found in
the epidermal
region of
a leaf
• Mesophyll tissue layer is
sandwiched between the two layers
of epidermis. 
• The vascular tissues of a leaf is
located within the mesophyll layer
as well as ground tissues. 
• The dermal tissues are found in the
epidermal region of a leaf.
SMALL-SCALE
FEATURES
EPIDERMIS
• It is the outer layer of a leaf. 
• It is a single layer of cells derived from the protoderm. 
• Epidermis protects the leaf from water loss, abrasions. 
• It also regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor from the plant via
the leaves. 
• It is usually non-photosynthetic. 
• It secretes a waxy coating called cuticle that helps the plant retain water.  
• It has tiny pores called Stomata. 
• Guard cells regulates the opening and closing of the stomata
 MESOPHYLL
• The middle mesophyll leaf layer is composed of a Palisade mesophyll
and a Spongy mesophyll. 
• Palisade mesophyll contains columnar cells with spaces between the
cells. 
• Most plants chloroplast are found in this region.  
• Spongy mesophyll is located below the palisade mesophyll.  
• It is composed of irregular shaped cells.
• Leaf vascular tissue is found in spongy mesophyll.
 VASCULAR TISSUE
• A vein is made up of a vascular bundle. At the core of each bundle are
clusters of two distinct types of conducting cells.
• Xylem
• Cells that bring water and minerals from the roots into the leaf.
• Phloem
• Cells that usually move sap, with dissolved sucrose produced by
photosynthesis in the leaf, out of the leaf.
DEVELOPMENT OF LEAF
• Leaf 
• It is an exogenous, flattened lateral outgrowth  developing at the
node of the stem & bear bud in its axil.

• It is the major photosynthesizing & transpiring organ  of the

plant.
• Characters

• Develop as an exogenous lateral outgrowth. 

•  Develops from shoot meristem as leaf primordia.

• Its growth is limited (intercalary meristem).
• It is borne at node of stem.

• It bears an axillary bud in its axil. It is green due to chlorophyll.

• An apical bud is absent in leaf.
 ORIGIN & DEVELOPMENT OF LEAF
• Develops from leaf primordium from promeristem of SAM.

i. Initiation
• Periclinal divisions on flanks of promeristems  below the apex.
• It produces a bulge called leaf buttress which grow  laterally.
• Leaf primordium grows in length by activity of apical  meristem
present at tip.
• Further growth occurs by activity of apical, intercalary,  adaxial &
plate meristem.
 DEVELOPMENT OF LEAF AXIS
• Apical meristem forms bladeless tapering cone shaped  leaf-
axis.

• Activity of apical meristem ceases & further development  takes

place by intercalary meristem.

• In monocots intercalary growth is more pronounced due  to

presence intercalary meristem.
 GROWTH OF LAMINA BY MARGINAL MERISTEM
1.The cells of margins of leaf axis becomes more active &  forms leaf
blade with mid-rib (marginal meristem).

2.The marginal meristem of the leaf blade show little  activity at base
& form petiole.

3.Adaxial meristem divides periclinally & makes leaf  thick.

4.Final shape & size of leaf takes place by activity of  Plate
meristem (meristem containing parallel layers of cells  dividing
anticlinally only).
 LEAF PRIMORDIA SHOWING GROWING SITES

A. Apical growth B. Adaxial meristem, plate meristem

& marginal meristem C. Intercalary growth D. Growth of blade derived from
marginal meristem & vein differentiation
Vertical sections of leaf primordia showing
Marginal & sub-marginal initials
 ACTIVITIES OF MARGINAL & SUB-
MARGINAL INITIALS (DICOT LEAF)
The activity of sub-marginal initials is not uniform in  all
leaves & follow two type of patterns
Type I: Alternation of anticlinal & periclinal divisions  Anticlinal:
Adaxial & Abaxial mesophyll layers  Periclinal: Middle
mesophyll layer
Type II: Anticlinal division: Submarginal initials &  deeper inner layer
are derived from abaxial/adaxial layers
The multiplication of mesophyll layer is variable in  these two
types of sequences.
On completion of all layers, cells divide anticlinally  only to
increase the surface area but no change in  thickness occurs
 Origin of leaf primordium /leaf blade in Flax
(Linum)
Leaf buttress
Upward
growth

Growth of
Primordium blade
Before initiation
of blade

Plate meristem divides by

anticlinal divisions
Still leaf compact Spongy parenchyma Mature Leaf
with intercellular
spaces & palisade
tissue
 DIFFERENTIATION OF MESOPHYLL

1. Palisade parenchyma is formed by anticlinal divisions

2. Spongy parenchyma is formed by anticlinal divisions but less

frequent than palisade cells.

3.The adjacent epidermal cells stop dividing & enlarge in the plane
parallel to the surface of the leaf.
 VASCULAR TISSUE

• Vascular tissue develop by activity of procambium that develops

from plate meristem.

• Phloem develops earlier than xylem.

• The midrib & lateral veins are formed during intercalary

growth.
Thanks