CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. Overview of vascular plant Organs

2. Overview of plant growth and development

3. Primary plant body

(ROOTS, STEMS & LEAVES)
 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
 Have an idea of the basic plant organs

 Describe the structure of a root, stem and leaves

 Know the general functions of roots, stems and leaves

• Plant organs are made from simple and complex tissues that
adapts as a group to perform particular functions.

• Vascular plants have three types of organs: Root, Stem &

leaves

• Bryophytes and some seedless vascular plants have

structures that can be called stem-like, leaf-like and root-
like but are not consider true root stems and leaf.
• Any part of a plant that supports leaves or
reproductive structures

• Stems vary greatly in size, such as a slender

stalk supporting a small flower

• Regardless of size, all stems display leaves in

the best position for photosynthesis

• Stems provide pathways for the transport of

leaves products to roots
 Leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of
modern plants

 Leaves serve as the site of

photosynthesis

 They are an extension of the plant’s

vascular tissue system

 Leaves do not only conduct water but also

provide most of the pressure that actually
forces the water through the plant’s body
• Root has two main functions:
– Anchoring the plant in the soil
– Absorption of water and minerals

• Absorption takes place near the tips of roots

through trichomes called root hairs

• Many roots store food for the plant. Eg: carrot

and sweet potatoes
 Plants and other multicellular organisms develop from a
single cell

 Through cells division, elongation and specializing for

different functions

 Seed plants are either gymnosperms or angiosperms

 Gymnosperms are plants with “naked
seeds”

 Angiosperms are plants with “seeds in

a container”

 The body of a typical plant can be

described as having two connecting
systems:
 Root system
 Shoot system
 PLANT EMBRYOLOGY
• Plant embryogenesis - is the process that produces a
plant embryo from a fertilized ovule by cell division and the
differentiation of undifferentiated cells into tissues and
organs.

• A seed plant embryo includes the following embryonic

organs that develops into a root and shoots: Cotyledon,
Radicle, Plumule, Epicotyl and Hypocotyl
 Plant Embryology

• “seed leaves”
• It is usually the largest and most
visible parts of an embryo
• Consist of one or more seed
leaves
• Main function: Stores food for the
germinating seed
 Plant Embryology

 “Embryonic root”
 the part of a plant embryo that
develops into the primary root

 “Embryonic shoot”
 The rudimentary shoot
of an embryo plant
 Plant Embryology

 “Embryonic stem”
 The tiny shoot, which develops
into stems, leaves and flowers of
the plant future

 The stem of a germinating

seedling, found below the
cotyledons and above the
radicle
 Plants Growing Seasons
 Plants that have significant secondary growth are know informally
as Woody plants

 Plant with little or no secondary growth are know as Herbaceous

plants

 Plants have indeterminate growth

 Plant can be categorized into three distinct groups based on how

long they live:
Annual, Biennial and Perennial plants
 Annual Plants
• An annual is a plant that completes its life cycle during a single
growing season
• Eg: Marigolds, beans, corn etc
 Biennial Plants
 A Plant that usually requires two growing seasons (2 years) to
complete its life cycle
 Eg: Carrots, beets, cabbage etc
 Perennial Plants
 A plant that grows for more than two years
 Most are woody plants
 Eg: trees, shurbs

Evergreen Tree Dragon blood tree

• The body of a typical plant can be
described as having two connecting system:
a root system and a shoot system

• The root system consists of all the roots,

which are usually below the ground

• The shoot system consists of all the stems,

leaves, and reproductive structures, which
are usually aboveground
• In vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically
lies below the surface of the soil.

• Roots can also be aerial or aerating, that is growing up above

the ground or especially above water.

• The first root that comes from a plant is called Radicle

• F U N C T I O N S O F ROOT

– Anchoring of plant firmly in the soil

– Absorption and conduction of water and inorganic nutrients

– Storage of food and nutrients

– Vegetative reproduction
– Root produce hormones and other substances that regulated the
plant’s development and structure
TYPES O F ROOT SYSTEM

• On the basis of their origin there are two main

patterns of root growth:

– Taproots system
– Adventitious root systems
• The taproot is the largest, most central, and most
dominant root from which other roots sprout
laterally
• A taproot is somewhat straight and very thick

• This root function to tap deep sources of water

• It develops directly from the radicle

• Taproot produces branch roots called lateral

roots
• Taproot system are typically of most dicots and gymnosperms
• Eg: Dandelion, Beans, Cycads, Conifers
• Roots that develop from any other part of a plant body
either than the radicle

• This is common in seedless vascular plants and grasses

• These roots can be present underground or above the

ground.

• No single root stands out as the largest root in a fibrous

root system

• Fibrous roots grow fairly close to the surface of the

ground

• few plants with fibrous root systems: Coconut palm,

Grass, Onion
• Root development occurs near the root tip, in the apical meristem

• Apical meristem has cells called Initials

• Initials are located within small spherical center of the meristem called
Quiescent center

• Initials and derivative cells can rebuild damaged or destroyed apical

meristem
• A root apical meristem produces a root cap which consist
of several layers of cells

• The root caps serves as a protection for the root cells as it pushes
between the soil particles

• The root cap produce slimy polysaccharide know as Mucigel

• Mucigel lubricates the passage of the root through the soil

The root apical meristem
• Cell division in a root or shoot apical meristem produces the derivative that becomes
the Primary meristems: protoderm, ground meristem and procambium

• In a root, division, growth, and differentiation of cells can be traced linearly

through three overlapping regions;

−
Zone of Cell Division, Elongation and Maturation
• In a cross section or transverse section, the root presents the following structures:

– Stele
– Protostele
− Endodermis
− Pericycle
– Epidermis
– Cortex
− Vascular tissues

Stele:
• The central part of a root or stem

• The zone internal to the endodermis which contains specialized tissue responsible
for the transport of water and minerals to the shoot
 Epidermis
Root hair

Cortex

Endodermis

Pericycle
Xylem Stele

Phloem
• Protostele: is the most simplest type of stele and the earliest to evolve

• In the root of most seed plants, two important cell layers called the
pericycle and the endodermis surround the stele

• Pericycle: a cell layer immediately encircling the stele that gives rise to
lateral roots

• Endodermis: the layer of cells around the stele that regulates the flow
of substances between cortex and vascular tissue
 A
B
G
C

D
• Roots carry out the following functions in addition to their
primary functions:

• A modified adventitious root that arise from

stem tissue

• Found in plants that grow on other plants for

support and nourishment (Epiphyte)

• Provides additional support for a plant such as

water retention, photosynthesis, and support.
• Eg: Corn
• Flared roots that extend from tree trunks
• Provide stability to plants in thin soils
• Eg: Fig tree
• A thickened specialized root at the
base of a corm, bulb, rosette or
other organ

• Contractile roots are usually broad,

fleshy, vertical, tapering, wrinkled
looking

• It is designed to shrink vertically

under conditions of seasonal
drought that helps position this
plant part at an appropriate level in
the ground.

• Found in lilies
• Also known as air roots
• They provide oxygen for plants in swampy areas where high rate of
aerobic decay reduces the oxygen supply in the water
• Eg: Mangrove
• Modified parasitic roots
• They penetrates the stems and roots of other plants to obtain water,
mineral and organic molecules
• Eg: Mistletoe (Viscum album)
• Roots often form mutualistic or beneficial associations with other
organisms
• Mycorrhizae
• This is a form of mutualistic relationship between vascular plant
roots
and soil fungi
• This occur in more that 90% of plant species

• The two main types of these associations are;

Endomycorrhizae
and Ectomycorrhizae
S S
• A part of a plant that supports leaves or
reproductive structures

• They may vary in size, such as from a slender

stalk to a big tree trunk

• They grow above the ground and together with

the leaves they constitute the shoot system

• First stem of a plant develops from part of a

seed embryo called Epicotyl
− Transport water and solutes
between roots and leaves

− Produces & support appendages of

plant (leaves, flowers, fruits)

− Stems in some plants are

photosynthetic Cauti

− In some plants, stems have become

adapted for specialized functions
such as;
 Storage etc
Herbaceous Stems Woody Stems
• Soft & green • Tough & not green
• Little growth in • Considerable growth in
diameter diameter
• Tissues chiefly • Tissues chiefly
primary secondary
• Chiefly annual • Chiefly perennial
• Covered by • Covered by corky bark
epidermis
Herbaceous Stem Woody stem
All stems are recognizable from other plant organs by the
presence of nodes, internodes, buds and leaves

− Node: A node is a point on the stem from which

leaves or buds arise

− Internode: The portion between two successive

nodes

− Buds: A bud is an undeveloped or embryonic

shoot which has the potential for further plant
growth.
− It may develop into a leaf, flower, or both.
− Plants have three types of buds on the basis of
• Internal structure of a dicot stem reveals the following features:
Epidermis, cortex, pericycle, vascular bundles and pith
• Two models describes how a shoot apical meristem gives rise
to the primary meristems
• These are: The Zone model and the Cell-layer model

• Here the shoot apical meristem is divided into three regions:

(central mother cell zone, peripheral zone, and pith zone)

A. Central mother cell zone; consist of cells that divide not

frequently and give rise to peripheral and pith zone
B. Peripheral zone; form a 3D ring around
the central mother cell zone
• Cells from this zone develop into the leaf
primodial
• Eventually, this gives rise to the dermal
and
vascular cells of the stem

C. Pith zone; it is below the central and

peripheral zone
• Cells of the pith zone give rise to the ground
tissue in the center of the stem
• Ground tissue are in the pith.
• Also known as the Tunica Corpus model.
• This consist of two layers: Outer layer (Tunica) and
the Corpus layer.
• The outer layer (Tunica) is equivalent to the
peripheral zone
• Here the plant divide perpendicular to the
surface
known as the anticlinal division.

• The Corpus layer is equivalent to the central mother

cell zone, the inner part of the peripheral zone and
the pith zone

• The corpus give rise to the procambium and ground

meristem while the tunica give rise to the
• Leaves on the side of the shoot meristem comes
in three basic patterns; (alternate, opposite and
whorled)

• Alternate arrangement has one leaf per node, it

may form a spherical or helical pattern

• Opposite arrangement consists of two leaves per

node. Each pair of leaves is oriented like the
previous pair

• Whorled arrangement includes three or more

leaves per nodes.
• Specialized stems are: Stolon, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, corms etc

• Horizontal stem aboveground • Underground horizontal stems with

• Stolon often originate as axillary buds adventitious roots
• They help a plant reproduce asexually • hizomes are used to store starches and
• Eg: Bermuda grass, spider plant, ferns proteins
• Eg: Irises, ferns, grasses, ginger
• Underground stems that store
food
• Usually swollen
• The “eyes” of a potato (Irish
potatoes, Solanum tuberosu)
are the nodes of a starch-
ladened stem
• Large buds with a small stem
at the lower end surrounded
by numerous fleshy leaves
• Leaves stores nutrients
• Adventitious roots at the
base
• Eg: Onion, tulip, daffodil
and
Lily
• Composed entirely of stem
tissue surrounded by a
few papery scale like
leaves
• Adventitious roots at the
base
• Eg: Crocus and gladiolus
S
• A leaf is a thin, flattened organ,
above ground and specialized
for photosynthesis

• It originates from the shoot

apical meristem as a bump of
tissue know as the leaf primordia

• Leaf primordium develops into a

leaf through cell division, growth,
and differentiation
• Photosynthesis is the primary function
of the leaves

• It function in water retention in desert

plants. Eg: Cactus

• Function during transpiration

• Function in translocation via the leaf

veins
• A leaf can be either simple
leaf or compound leaf
• This concept is determined by determining
the position of the bud

• A simple leaf is a single leaf that attaches to

the stem
• Simple leaf contains one blade.

• A compound leaf is a leaf that is composed

of two or more leaflets on a common stalk
• Blade is divided into two or more distinct le
aflets.
• Leaves can be found in a variety of shapes
Tip
and sizes
• Most leaves are broad, flat and typically
green in color Blade (Lamina)
• Leaf shape is adapted to best suit the
Midrib
plant's habitat and maximize
photosynthesis.
• The Basic leaf features of plants
Margin
include:
Petiole Vein
• Leaf blade
• Petiole
BLADE
• The broad portion of a leaf.
– Apex - leaf tip.
– Margin - leaf edge boundary area.
Margins can be smooth, jagged
(toothed), lobed, or parted.
– Veins - vascular tissue bundles that
support the leaf and
transport nutrients.
– Midrib - central main vein arising
from secondary veins.
– Base - area of the leaf that connects
the blade to the petiole.
• PETIOLE - thin stalk that attaches the leaf to a
stem.
• STIPULES - leaf-like structures at the leaf base.

• Leaf shape, margin, and

venation (vein formation)
are the main features used
in plant identification
• Leaf tissues are composed of layers of plant cells
• Different plant cell types form three main tissues found in leaves
• A typical leaf has three regions, namely: Upper epidermis,
Mesophyll tissue layer and Lower epidermis
• Mesophyll tissue layer is sandwiched between the two layers of
epidermis
• The vascular tissues of a leaf is located within the mesophyll layer
as well as ground tissues
• The dermal tissues are found in the epidermal region of a leaf
 1. EPIDERMIS
• It is the outer layer of a leaf
• It is a single layer of cells derived from the protoderm

• Epidermis protects the leafs from water loss, abrasions

• It also regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor from the
plant via the leaves

• It is usually non-photosynthetic
• It secretes a waxy coating called cuticle that helps the plant retain
water
• It has tiny pores called Stomata
• Guard cells regulates the opening and closing of the stomata
 2. MESOPHYLL
• The middle mesophyll leaf layer is composed of a Palisade mesophyll and
a Spongy mesophyll

• Palisade mesophyll contains columnar cells with spaces between the cells

• Most plants chloroplast are found in this region

• Spongy mesophyll is located below the palisade mesophyll

• It is composed of irregular shaped cells

• Leaf vascular tissue is found in spongy mesophyll

• Like other organs, leaves are often modified for functions other
than photosynthesis. Below are a few examples:

• Cotyledons • Insect-trapping leaves

• Tendrils • Leaves modified for
• Stipule reproduction
• Spines • Prophylls
• Storage leaves
 TENDRIL
• A tendril is a specialized leave or
petiole with a threadlike shape
• It is used by climbing plants for
support, attachment
STIPULE
• An outgrowths borne on either side of
the base of a leafstalk
• They are used like leaves to make energy
for the plants.
• Sometimes stipules protect the next leaf
or bud as it grows in, then falls off after
the leaf unfolds
INSECT-TRAPPING LEAVES SPINES

• Spines are hard, sharp leaves that are

• Insect-trapping leaves are leaves that are
specialized to defend the plant from being
specialized to trap insects.
eaten by animals.
• They may be sticky to trap the insect, may
• The stem makes food for the plant. Cactus
form containers or they may snap shut when
and ocotillo are examples of plants with
the insect lands on the leaves.
spines.