INTRODUCTION TO

STATISTICS
WHAT IS STATISTICS?
“Statistics is a way to get information from data”

Statistics

Data Information
Information:
Data: Facts, especially Knowledge
numerical facts, collected communicated
together for reference or
information.
concerning some
particular fact.

Statistics is a tool for creating new understanding from a set of numbers.

1.2
 EXPERIMENTAL TRUE
RESEARCH EXPERIMENT

SURVEY

RESEARCH
TYPES
DEVELOPMENT
AL DESIGN
NON
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH CORRELATION

QUASI
EXPERIMENT
DESCRIPTIVE VS. INFERENTIAL
Population inferences can be made...
...by selecting a representative sample from
the population

Random vs. non random

sampling???
What are variables you would consider in buying a book?
DEFINITION
• A variable is some characteristic of a population or sample.
E.g. student grades.
Typically denoted with a capital letter: X, Y, Z…

• The values of the variable are the range of possible values for a variable.
E.g. student marks (0..100)

• Data are the observed values of a variable.

E.g. student marks: {67, 74, 71, 83, 93, 55, 48}
VARIABLES
• We have grouping variables (discrete), commonly referred to as:
– Factors
– Independent Variables
• best term if manipulated experimentally
– Predictors
– Grouping Variables
– Classification Variables
VARIABLES
• We have one continuous variable, commonly referred to as the
– Dependent variable
• best term if data collected experimentally
– Criterion variable
– Outcome variable
– Response variable
– Comparison variable
Variable Type Key characteristic Example
Independent A variable that is presumed to cause Amount of studying (IV) affects
variable (IV) changes to occur in another variable; a test grades (DV)
causal variable
Dependent A variable that changes because of Amount of studying (IV) affects
variable (DV) another variable; the effect or outcome test grades (DV)
variable
Moderator variable A variable that delineates how a Perhaps the relationship between
relationship of interest changes under studying (IV) and test grades (DV)
different conditions or circumstances changes according to the different
levels of use of a drug such as
Ritalin (moderator)
Extraneous A variable that may compete with the Pre-knowledege of topic that was
variable independent variable in explaining an tested in the test (confounding
outcome variable)
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
• A precise definition of the way a variable will be measured
and/or manipulated in the research
Variable Operational definition Value
Intelligence Score on a Statistics test 90
Anxiety Score at or above 75th GAD-7
percentile on measure of
anxiety
Memory Recall the number of 4
books read last month
 Senario
Satu kajian menggunakan pensampelan rawak
dijalankan terhadap penduduk di Kuala Lumpur dan
penduduk di Kuala Krai, Kelantan. Pengkaji telah
merekodkan berat sekumpulan penduduk wanita di
kedua-dua lokasi berikut.
Nyatakan pemboleh ubah bersandar dan pemboleh
ubah bebas kajian ini. Kenalpasti jenis data dan skala
pengukuran bagi setiap pembolehubah. Bina
persoalan kajian yang bersesuaian.
MEASUREMENT SCALES
ANALYZING LIKERT DATA
SAMPLE RESEARCH ARTICLE