Math Module 1 History of Statistics
What is STATISTICS ?
- sta·tis·tics ; noun
- the practice or science of collecting and
analyzing numerical data in large quantities,
especially for the purpose of inferring
proportions in a whole from those in a
representative sample.
Why STATISTICS?
- Correct Statistical Process leads to
Correct / Valid / Reliable Information
> Information
- Published data
- Survey Results
- Research output
❖ Every day, we use news and information
sources to gather facts that we need in making
decisions.
❖ Likewise, everyday business managers have to
make decisions. Some of them resort to “gut
instincts” but more typically make decisions are
directly influenced by hard facts.
❖ One cannot go about without statistics.
❖ Today, applications of statistics and statistical
methods can be found in different areas of
education, agriculture, economics, biology and
medicine.
Application of Statistics in Other Fields
Diverse applications
“During the 20th Century statistical thinking and
methodology have become the scientific framework
for literally dozens of fields including education,
agriculture, economics, biology, and medicine, and
with increasing influence recently on the hard
sciences such as astronomy, geology, and physics.
In other words, we have grown from a small
obscure field into a big obscure field.” – Brad Efron
❖ Agriculture - comparing the effects of five kinds
of fertilizers on the yield of a particular variety
of corn.
❖ Economics - determining the income
distribution of Filipino families.
❖ Health - comparing the effectiveness of two diet
programs.
❖ Physical Science - prediction of daily
temperatures.
❖ Education - evaluation of student performance.
❖ The term statistics came from the Latin phrase
“ratio status” which means study of practical
politics or the statesman’s art.
❖ In the middle of 18th century, the term statistik
(a term due to Achenwall) was used, a German
term defined as “the political science of several
countries”
❖ From statistik it became statistics defined as a
statement in figures and facts of the present
condition of a state.
Definition of Statistics
❖ plural sense: numerical facts, e.g. NBA-points
per game, peso-dollar exchange rate
❖ singular sense: scientific discipline consisting of
theory and methods for processing numerical
information that one can use when making
decisions in the face of uncertainty.
Two aims of Statistics
Statistics aims to uncover structure in data, to
explain variation…
- Descriptive
- Inferential
Areas of Statistics
Descriptive statistics
- methods concerned w/ collecting,
describing, and analyzing a set of data
without drawing conclusions (inferences)
about a large group.
Inferential statistics
-methods concerned with the
analysis of a subset of data leading to
predictions or inferences(conclusions) about
the entire set of data.
Example of Descriptive Statistics
Present the Philippine population by
constructing a graph indicating the total number of
Filipinos counted during the last census by age
group and sex
Example of Inferential Statistics  A population is the set of all possible
A new milk formulation designed to improve the values of the variable.
psychomotor development of infants was tested on
randomly selected infants.

Based on the results, it was concluded that the new

milk formulation is effective in improving the
psychomotor development of infants.  A sample is a subset of the population.

Basic Terms
Key Definitions
SAMPLING – the process of selecting a sample
 A universe is the collection of things or
PARAMETER – descriptive measure of the
observational units under consideration.
population
STATISTIC – descriptive measure of the sample
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS – concerned with
making generalizations about parameters using
statistics

Population size ( N ) = 15
Average age =
(26+32+25+35+31+30+28+33+34+31+34+27+2
6+32+30) / 15
= 445 / 15
 A variable is a characteristic observed or = 30.3 ----- ( Parameter)
measured on every unit of the universe.
 Qualitative variables
categorical responses, non-numerical
characteristics or label

Sample size ( n ) = 9
Average age =
(26+25+35+31+30+34+27+26+32) / 9
= 266 / 9
= 29.55 ----- ( statistic)

Quantitative variables
numerical responses, measurements or quantities

Types of Variables Levels of measurements

NOMINAL SCALE height, weight, color, number, etc. and are either
independent or dependent.

 The independent variable is the variable the

experimenter changes or controls and is
assumed to have a direct effect on the
dependent variable. ...
 The dependent variable is the variable being
tested and measured in an experiment, and
is 'dependent' on the independent variable.

ORDINAL SCALE

INTERVAL SCALE
“no true zero”
 Example: Temperature in degree Celsius on
five successive days in Alaska
3.4 2.5 0.0 4.2 2.7
RATIO SCALE
“Meaningful true zero”
 Example: Number of children in the Family Objective: To determine the effect of
bio-fertilizer “x” on plant growth.

Levels of measurements

Objective: To determine if there is a relationship

between Student’s characteristics and the time they
spend online.

RESEARCH VARIABLES
Variables in Research
- Variable are factors, Parameters,
attributes or qualities of the cases that are being
measured or recorded, examples being sec, age,
 Module 2 PROBABILITY SAMPLES
DATA COLLECTION
❖ Samples are obtained using some objective
Basic Concepts in Sampling and Sampling
chance mechanism, thus involving
Techniques
randomization.
Sampling Techniques
❖ They require the use of a complete listing of the
• Is the manner by which the samples are
elements of the universe called the sampling
drawn from the population.
frame.
❖ The probabilities of selection are known.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
❖ They are generally referred to as random
samples.
❖ They allow drawing of valid generalizations
about the universe/population.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
❖ Simple Random Sampling
❖ Systematic Random Sampling
❖ Stratified Random Sampling
❖ Cluster Sampling
WHY DO WE USE SAMPLES? ❖ Multistage Sampling
1. Reduced Cost SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
2. Greater Speed or Timeliness
3. Greater Efficiency and Accuracy ❖ Most basic method of drawing a probability
4. Greater Scope sample
5. Convenience ❖ Assigns equal probabilities of selection to each
6. Necessity possible sample
7. Ethical Considerations ❖ Results to a simple random sample
❖ Lottery
How to determine the Sample size? ❖ Use of table of random numbers
𝑵 ❖ Use of electronic generated random
𝒏 = 𝟏+𝑵𝒆𝟐 N – Population size
❖ numbers
n – sample size
e – desired margin of
error
Computation of the Sample size

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

TWO TYPES OF SAMPLES
1. Probability sample
❖ The universe is divided into L mutually exclusive
2. Non-probability sample
sub-universes called strata.
❖ Independent simple random samples are
obtained from each stratum.
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
❖ It considers a universe divided into N mutually
exclusive sub-groups called clusters.
❖ A random sample of n clusters is selected and
their elements are completely enumerated.
❖ It has simpler frame requirements.
❖ It is administratively convenient to implement.

Advantages of Stratification
1. It gives a better cross-section of the population.
2. It simplifies the administration of the
survey/data gathering.
3. The nature of the population dictates some
inherent stratification.
4. It allows one to draw inferences for various
subdivisions of the population.
5. Generally, it increases the precision of the
estimates.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING SIMPLE TWO-STAGE SAMPLING

❖ Adopts a skipping pattern in the selection of
sample units
❖ Gives a better cross-section if the listing is
linear in trend but has high risk of bias if there
is periodicity in the listing of units in the
sampling frame
❖ Allows the simultaneous listing and selection of
samples in one operation
In the first stage, the units are grouped into N sub-
groups, called primary sampling units (psu’s) and a
simple random sample of n psu’s are selected.
SIMPLE TWO-STAGE SAMPLING
In the second stage, from each of the n psu’s
selected with Mi elements, simple random sample
of mi units, called secondary sampling units ssu’s,
will be obtained.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLES
❖ Samples are obtained haphazardly, selected
purposively or are taken as volunteers.
❖ The probabilities of selection are unknown.
Non-Random / Non-Probability Sampling
• Purposive Sampling:
Example: Mr. Chan wants to know the
reaction of students regarding their school uniform.
Instead of interviewing majority of the students he
just interviewed the students in the dean’s list.
• Quota Sampling:
Example: Suppose in determining taxpayer’s
attitude towards increased monthly pension for
retired persons, an interviewer might be told to
interview (10- male/ self-employed/ homeowner/
35 years of age), ( 15-female/ wage earners in the
45-50 age bracket who lived in rented house), (5-
public school teacher), and so on.
• Convenience Sampling:
Example: Internet Polls, Telephone survey
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLES
❖ They should not be used for statistical
inference.
❖ They result from the use of judgment sampling,
accidental sampling, purposively sampling, and
the like.