 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS is the branch of
statistics that involves the collection,
organization, summarization and presentation
of data.
 Molly Galetto (2016), DATA MANAGEMENT is
the administrative process by which the
required data is acquired, validated, stored,
protected, and processed, and by which its
accessibility, reliability, and timeliness is
ensured to satisfy the needs of the data users.
 HYPOTHESIS TEST evaluates two mutually
exclusive statements about a population to
determine which statement is best supported
by the sample data and justified by the
statistical test/s used.
 There are two categories of data namely:
 Categorical data are nominal scales(finite
set of possible values with no particular
order like gender, civil status,
occupation)and ordinal scales
 Continuous scale has interval scale (like
temperature, time tons of garbage, income,
number of arrests, age) and ratio scale
(height, money, age, weight)
 Continuous data are numerical data that
can theoretically be measured in infinitely
small units.
 PERCENTAGES or RATIOS summarize two pieces
of information, namely their constituent
numerator and denominator values.
 Simple ratios (0 to 1, i.e. the denominator is the
maximum possible value that the numerator
can take) can be treated as continuous data.
 These data set can be organized and presented
using graphs:
 Bar graphs
 Histogram
 Pictograph
 Line graphs
 Circle graphs / Pie charts
 The data gathered should be accurately
organized in to grouped data called frequency
distribution and presented in a frequency
polygon.
 FREQUENCY POLYGON which is defined as the
graph that uses lines to join the midpoints of
the classes.
 VARIABLE that can be measured and ordered
according to quantity is quantitative while
qualitative is simply used as labels to
differentiate one group from the other.
 HYPOTHESIS – A statement or tentative theory
which aims to explain facts about the real
world.
 A specific statement of prediction
 Describes in concrete terms what is
expected by the researcher in the study
 HYPOTHESIS – It was introduced by Ronald
Fisher, Jerzy Neyman, Karl Pearson and
Pearson’s son, Egon Pearson.
 A statistical method that is used in making
statistical decisions using experimental
data.
 Used to determine whether the hypothesis
is a reasonable statement and should not
be rejected, or is unreasonable and should
be rejected.
 Hypothesis are never proven through
hypothesis testing; rather they are accepted
or rejected through the use of statistical
tests.
 Types of Hypotheses
 Null hypothesis (Ho)
• Defined as the hypothesis of no
difference. • Formulated with the purpose
of being accepted or rejected.
 Alternative hypothesis (H1 or Ha)
• A claim that disagrees with the null
hypothesis (Kiernan, 2020).
• Sometimes referred to as the “research
hypothesis” (La Trobe University, 2020).
• This indicates that a difference does exist
between two or more variables.
• This represents what the researcher
hopes to find to be true.
 TEST STATISTIC – quantity calculated from
sample data and is used in making the decision
to “reject Ho“or “do not reject Ho.
 Types of Statistical Tests (Wills, n.d.)
• Parametric tests (Broto, 2008)
• Nonparametric test
 Types of Correct Decision (Febre, 1987)
• Type A: This occurs when the null hypothesis
is true and we decide on its favor.
• Type B: This occurs when the null hypothesis
is false, and the decision is in opposition to the
null hypothesis
 Types of Error (Febre, 1987)
• Type I: Reject the null hypothesis when in fact
it is true; denoted by.
• Type II: Accept the null hypothesis when in
fact it is false; denoted by.
 Location of the Critical Region
 One-tailed test. This is performed when the
results are in one direction.
 • Two-tailed test. The two-tailed test is
performed when the results are in either
direction
 STATISTICAL TOOLS derived from mathematics
are useful in processing and managing data in
order to describe a phenomenon and predict
values.
 STATISTICS – A body of knowledge that deals
with the collection, organization, or
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of
data.
 Steps in Conducting a Research:
 Collection – Gathering of information or
data.
 Organization/Presentation – Summarizing
data or information in textual, graphical, or
tabular forms
 Analysis - Describing the data by using
Statistical methods and procedures.
 Interpretation – Process of making
conclusions based on analysed data.
 History of Statistics:
 Ancient Egypt – Prepared list of all the
heads of the families
 Ancient Judea – Census was taken in
several occasions
 1st Roman Census – Census was repeated
sixty-nine times, the most famous was
written in the Bible
 Categories: Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics – statistical procedure
concerned with describing the
characteristics and properties of group of
persons, places or things.
- Examples: How poor /how rich a group
of people in a community
- How many are literate/illiterate
 Inferential Statistics – statistical procedure
that is used to draw inferences or
information about properties or
characteristics of large group of people,
places or things or the basis of information
obtained from a small portion of a large
group.
- Examples: Suppose we wanted to know
the most favourite brand of deodorant
soap of a very large community and we
do not have enough time and money to
interview all the residents of the
barangay
 Terminologies in Statistics:
 Population – large collection of objects,
persons, places, or things.
 Sample – small portion or part of a
population.
 Parameter – Any numerical or nominal
characteristic of a population
 Statistic – value or measurement obtained
from a given sample
 Data Facts – or set of information or
observations under study.
a. Qualitative data - cannot be subjected to
arithmetic operations. Example: gender and
nationality
b. Quantitative data – numerical in nature
and obtained from counting or
measurement. Example: test scores and
height of students
a. Discrete variable- one that can assume a
finite number of values (counting)
b. Continuous variable- one that can
assume a infinite values within a specified
interval (measuring).
c. Dependent variable- a variable that is
affected or influenced by another variable
d. Independent variable- a variable which
affects or influences the dependent variable
 Constant “A property or characteristic of a
population or sample, which makes the
members of the group similar to each other.
 Scales of Measurement
 Nominal Scale – Used when we want to say
one object is different from another for
identification purposes.
Ex. Gender, Nationality & Civil status
 Ordinal Scale – Data are arranged in
specified order or rank.
Ex. *Ranking of contestants in a beauty
contest
 Interval Scale – Data is greater or less than
another and the amount of difference can
be specified.
Ex. *Scores in an examination * Pearl got 48
in English examination while Jeanne got 35.
 Ratio Scale Like the interval scale the only
difference is the ratio level, it always starts
from an absolute or true zero point.
Ex. *betty weighs 45N, while her friend
Carla weighs 35N
 Measures of dispersion – enhance the
information given by the measures of central
tendency.
 dispersion is said to be relevant when there
is variation or lack of uniformity in the size
of items of a series
 Measures of Central Tendency – is the numbers
that describe what is average or typical of the
distribution.
 Also called as measures of the first order.
 Descriptive statistics – is the branch of statistics
involves the collection, organization,
summarization, presentation, and
interpretation of data while the branch that
interprets and draws conclusion from the data
is called inferential statistic.
 Inferential statistics are used when data is
viewed as a subclass of a specific population.
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Median
 Mode
 Weighted Mean
 The MEAN, Mn is also called the arithmetic
mean or average.
 A. Ungrouped Data
Mean (Mn) or 𝑿̅ = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔
 B. Grouped Data
Md = XLB + (N / 2 – cfb)i /fm
 The MODE category or score with the largest
frequency (or percentage) in the distribution.
 The Mode of Grouped Data
Mo = XLB + df1 / (df1 + df2) i
 WEIGHTED MEAN is an average computed by
giving different weights to some of the
individual values.
 It represents the average of a given data.
 Calculated when data is given in a different
way compared to an arithmetic mean or
sample mean.
A. Ungrouped Data Weighted Mean
WMn = ∑f X /N
 DIPERSION – the measure of the variation of
items. –A.L Bowley
 DIPERSION – measure of the extent to which
the individual items vary. –L.R Conor
 DIPERSION – spread is the degree of the scatter
or variation of the variables about a central
value. – B.C Broooks & W.F.L Dicks
 STATISTICIANS use summary measures to
describe the amount of variability or spread in a
set of data.
 Range
• Easiest measure of variability to calculate.
• Used when the measure of Central Tendency
is the mode (Nominal data or when the most
frequent score is of interest) or Median (Ordinal
data or skewed data
• Simply the difference between the highest
and lowest scores
RANGE = Highest score – Lowest score = 7 - 2 =
5 quartile.
 Standard Deviation
• Measure of Variability used with the Mean
(normally distributed interval or ratio data)
• Indicates the amount that all scores differ or
deviate from the Mean
• The more the scores differ from the Mean, the
higher the Standard Deviation (S)
• The sum of the deviation of scores from the
mean is always 0.
∑( X −X ̅ )2
 𝐬=
√
Where;
n−1
S = Standard Deviation
X = Scores
X̅ = Mean of scores
N = Number of scores
 STANDARD DEVIATION, SD is the most
important and useful measure of variation
 It is the square root of the Variance, SD2.
 It is an average to the degree to which each
set of scores in the distribution deviates
from the mean value.
 MEAN DEVIATION is a measure of deviation
that make use of all the scores in a distribution.
 This is more reliable than the range and
quartile deviation.
 Mean absolute deviation (MAD) of a data set is
the average distance between each data value
and the mean and it is a way to describe
variation in a data set and the mean and it is a
way to describe variation in a data set.
 Mean absolute deviation helps us get a
sense of how "spread out" the values in a
data set are.
 MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITION – another
most appropriate measures found to be useful
in describing a distribution of observations.
 These measures are vital in the
interpretation of quantitative variables,
where we are often interested in where a
particular value falls in the distribution.
 The most common measures of position are
percentiles, quartiles, deciles and standard
scores (aka, z-scores) and the box-and-whisker
or Boxplot.
 PERCENTILE is a measure used in statistics
indicating the value below which a given
percentage of observations in a group of
observations fall.
 The percentiles are the score- points that
divide a distribution into 100 equal parts.
 The 25th percentile (P25) is also called the
first quartile, it separate the lowest 25%
from other 75%.
 The `50th percentile is generally the
median.
 The 75th percentile is also called the third
 Percentile separate the data set into 100
equal groups.
 Pn = XLB + (i (nN – F) /f )
 Where;
Pn = the score corresponding to the ith
percentile rank
XLB = the lower limit of the percentile class
interval
f = the frequency of the percentile interval
F = the cumulative frequency of the interval
before the percentile interval
i = the class size
n = the rank in decimals
N = the total frequency
 QUARTILES are points that divide a distribution
into four equal parts.
 Consider that Q1= P25 ; Q2= P50; Q3 = P75;
Q4 = P100
 The lower quartile is Q1 and the upper
quartile is Q3
 Qn = XLB + (i (N/4 – F) /f )
 Where: Qn = the score corresponding to
the ith quartile rank
XLB = the lower limit of the quartile class
interval
 f = the frequency of the quartile interval  Normal distribution is a distribution of a normal
F = the cumulative frequency of the interval random variable with mean zero and standard
before the quartile period deviation equal to 1.
i = the class size  Normal distribution is important because
4 = stands for the quartile division it's the distribution that is followed by most
N = the total frequency of the continuous (or measurable)
 DECILES are points that divide a distribution characteristics (or variables) in our day-to-
into ten equal parts .Each part is called a decile. day life.
So, D1 = P10 D2 = P20, …D10 = P10  A distribution that occurs naturally in many
 Dn = XLB + (i (N/10 – F) /f) situations.
 Where: Dn = the score corresponding to the  In statistics, it is called the normal curve.
ith decile rank  In the social sciences, it is called the bell
XLB = the lower limit of the decile class curve.
interval  In Physics, it is called the Gaussian
f = the frequency of the decile interval distribution.
F = the cumulative frequency of the interval  The total area under the curve is 1.
before the decile interval  B. Pascal & P. de Fermat – Fathers of
i = the class size Probability.
4 = stands for the decile division  Kinds of Probability
N = the total frequency  Theoretical probability deals with the
 Z-scores (also known as standard score) tells us nature of the experiment and events; it is
how many standard deviations an observation is what we expect to happen
above or below the mean. - Based on facts
 A positive z-score measures the number of - Decisions should be made using
standard deviation a score is above the theoretical data
mean, and a negative z-score measures the  Experimental or empirical probability relies
number of standard deviations a score is on the fact of actual occurrence of the
below the mean. experiment and events; it is what actually
 A z-score describes the position of a raw happens when we try it out (based on
score in terms of its distance from the experiment or data).
mean, when measured in standard - Results base on experiment
deviation units.
 Also called standard score denoted by the
letter z
 BOX AND WHISKER PLOT (sometimes called a
boxplot) is a graph that presents information
from a five-number summary.
 It is a way of summarizing a set of data
measured on an interval scale as illustrated
below.
 A box-and-whisker plot shows the
distribution of data.
 A box-and-whisker diagram or a boxplot is a
graph that provides the five-number
summary for a finite data set in pictorial
form.
 PROBABILITY is the study of random events.
 It is used to make predictions about future
events.
 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS are a
fundamental concept in statistics and we use
probability in daily life to make decisions when
we don't know for sure what the outcome will
be.
 Used in analysing games of chance,
genetics, weather prediction, and a myriad
of other everyday events.