Statistics General Uses of statistics

STATISTICS is defined as a branch of mathematics - It aids in decision making

or science that deals with the collection,
- Provides comparison
organization, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of numerical data. - Explains an action that has taken place
- Justifies a claim or assertion
Statistics changes numbers/data into information; - Predicts future outcome
from information to knowledge; and from - Estimates an unknown quantity
knowledge to insight.
Fields of Statistics
Statistics is the art and science of deciding:
A. Statistical Methods of Applied
- what are the appropriate data to collect Statistics – refer to procedures and techniques used
- deciding how to collect data efficiently in the collection, presentation, analysis, and
- using data to give information, interpretation of data
- using data to answer questions,
- using data to make decisions. 1. Descriptive Statistics
– comprise those methods concerned with the
Statistics are data obtained by collecting, collection, description, and analysis of a set of data
processing, compiling, analyzing, publishing and without drawing conclusions or inferences about a
disseminating results, gathered from respondents larger set.
through statistical collections or from administrative – the main concern is simply to describe the set of
data. data such that otherwise vague information is
brought out clearly
Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the – conclusions apply only to the data on hand
- collection,
- organization 2. Inferential Statistics
- presentation, – comprise those methods concerned with making
- analysis, and predictions or inferences about a larger set of data
- interpretation or explanation of data. (population) using only the information gathered
from a subset (sample) of the larger set
Development of Statistics – main concern is not merely to describe but
actually predict and make inferences based on the
- The word statistics is believed to have been information gathered
derived from the word “ratio status”
meaning the study of practical politics. The Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
administration of states required the In social research, socio- A research intends to
collection and analysis of data of population demographic establish relationship
and wealth for the purpose of war and characteristics of between poverty level
finance. respondents are and socio-economic
summarized and status of respondents
Uses of statistics presented in tables and
graphs
Statistics is a discipline which was developed to A researcher measures A researcher wants to
extract relevant facts from a large body of the total gain in weight compare the gain in
information and to help people make decisions and mortality of fish weight and mortality of
when uncertainty exists concerning the information. cultured in hatchery fish cultured in aquaria
using two feed
formulations
Descriptive Statistics
- Descriptive statistics is the term given to the
analysis of data that helps describe, show or
summarize data in a meaningful way, that is,
it allows simpler interpretation of data
- When we use descriptive statistics it is
useful to summarize our group of data using
a combination of tabulated description (i.e.,
tables), graphical description (i.e., graphs
and charts) and statistical discussion of the
results by using descriptive numerical
measures such as average, range, etc.
Inferential Statistics
- Inferential statistics are techniques that
allow us to use subset of a larger set of data
to make conclusions about said larger set of
data
- Its applications are indicated in the use of
statistics as an aid in decision making in the
face of uncertainty.
- Estimate, compare, determine a data
Population and Parameter
Population
- A group of all individuals or entities (it can
be people, animals, etc.) that we would like
to know something about
Parameter
- A numerical characteristic of the population
in which we have a particular interest
- Often denoted with Greek letters (e.g., μ, σ,
σ2, P)
Examples:
- The population proportion (P) that would
respond to a certain drug
- The population mean (μ) height of college
students
Some basic terms
Variable – a characteristic or attribute of persons or
objects which can assume different values or labels
for different persons or objects under consideration
Measurement – a process of determining the value
or label of a particular variable for a particular
experimental unit
Experimental unit/case – the individual or object
on which a variable is measured
Data – are actual values or labels of a variable.
They may be numbers or they may be words.
Datum is a single value.
Example:
- Observing the color of car entering a parking lot
- Variable – color (Note: Color is the characteristic)
- Experimental Unit car (Note: Car is the object on
which color is to be observed)
Measuring the IQ of school children in the province
of Albay
Population: All school children in the province of
Albay
- Variable – IQ
- Experimental Unit – school child
Measuring the weights of college students in
University X
Population: All college students in University X
Experimental Unit/case: college student
Variable: weight
Classification of Variables
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Variable
 Qualitative variable – a variable that yields
categorical responses
Example:
Courses offered in BUTC (BSFT, BSN, BSSW,
BSFi, BSEd, BS Entrep)
Religion (Protestant, Catholic, INC, etc.)
Type of fishing gear
 Quantitative variable – a variable that takes
on numerical values representing an amount
or quantity
Example:
- Score in an exam
- pH level
- Protein content
Discrete vs. Continuous Variable
Continuous variable – a variable which can assume
the infinitely many values corresponding to a
number line.
Example:
- Time
- Weight
- Length
- Body mass index
Discrete variable – a variable which can assume a
finite or at most countably infinite number of
values, usually measured by counting or
enumeration
Example:
- Number of siblings
- Household size
- Number of COVID-19 patients
Levels or Scales of Measurement
Nominal Level (or Classificatory Scale)
- The nominal level is the weakest level of
measurement where numbers or symbols are
used simply for categorizing subjects into
different mutually exclusive unordered
categories or groups.
- Categorical or nominal variables with no
inherent order or ranking sequence such as
names or classes (e.g., gender, marital
status, religion, racial color). Value may be a
numerical, but without numerical value
(e.g., I, II, III). The only operation that can
be applied to Nominal variables is
enumeration.
Ordinal Level (or Ranking Scale)
- The ordinal level of measurement contains
the properties of the nominal level, and in
addition the numbers assigned to categories
of any variable may be ranked or ordered in
some low- to-high manner.
- Variables with an inherent rank or order, e.g.
mild, moderate, severe. Can be compared
for equality, or greater or less, but not how
much greater or less.
Example:
- Performance rating (1-Poor, 2-Fair, 3-Good,
4- Excellent)
- Size of T-shirt (Small, Medium, Large, XL)
- Adverse events (Mild, Moderate, Severe,
Life-threatening, Death)
- Income (Low, Medium, High)
Interval Level
- The interval level is that which has the
properties of the nominal and ordinal levels,
and in addition, the distances between any
two numbers on the scale are of known
sizes. An interval scale must have a common
and constant unit of measurement. Addition
and subtraction, but not multiplication and
division are meaningful operations.
- The unit of measurement is arbitrary and
there is no “true zero” point.
Example:
- IQ
- Temperature (in Celsius or Fahrenheit)
- pH level
Ratio Level
- The ratio level of measurement contains all
the properties of the interval level, and in
addition, it has a “true zero” point. Addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division are
all meaningful operations.
- Variables whose values represent counts or
amounts are measured in ratio level
Example:
- Age (in years)
- Number of siblings
- Volume (in cu. cm)
- Temperature (in Kelvin scale)
Classification of Data
1. Primary vs. Secondary
a. Primary source – data measured by the
researcher/agency that published it
Example: Data collected by the researcher himself
from the experiment or survey he conducted
b. Secondary source – any republication of
data by another agency
Example:
- The publications of the National Statistics
Office are primary sources and all
subsequent publications of other agencies
are secondary sources.
- Often data is picked from reports and
publications of researchers, institutions and
organizations. Such data is referred to as
secondary.
External vs. Internal
- Internal data – information that relates to
the operations and functions of the
organization collecting the data
- Secondary source – information that relates
to some activity outside the organization
collecting the data
Example: The sales data of SM is internal data for
SM but external data for any other organization
such as Robinson’s.
COLLECTION OF DATA
Data Collection Methods
1. Survey Method - questions are asked to
obtain information, either through self-
administered questionnaire (indirect
method) or personal interview (direct
method).
2. Observation Method – makes possible the
recording of behavior but only at the time of
occurrence (e.g., observing reactions to a
particular stimulus, traffic count)
Advantages over Survey Method:
- Does not rely on the respondent’s
willingness to provide the desired data
- Certain types of data can be collected only
by observation (e.g. behavior patterns of
which the subject is not aware of or is
ashamed to admit)
- The potential bias caused by the
interviewing process is reduced or
eliminated
Disadvantages over Survey Method
- Things such as, awareness, beliefs, feelings
and preferences cannot be observed
- The observed behavior patterns can be rare
or too unpredictable thus increasing the data
collection costs and time requirements
3. Experimental method – a method designed
for collecting data under controlled
conditions. An experiment is an operation
where there is actual human interference
with the conditions that can affect the
variable under study. This is an excellent
method of collecting data for causation
studies. If properly designed and executed,
experiments will reveal with good deal of
accuracy, the effect of a change in one
variable on another variable.
4. Use of existing studies - e.g., census, health
statistics, weather bureau reports, etc.
(secondary source of data)
Two types:
- Documentary sources – published or written
reports, periodicals, unpublished documents,
etc.
- Fields sources – researchers who have done
studies on the area of interest are asked
personally or directly for information
needed
5. Registration method – e.g., car
registration, student, registration, hospital
admission, etc.
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF
COLLECTING DATA
Census or complete enumeration is the process of
gathering information from every unit in the
population.
- Not always possible to get timely, accurate
and economical data
- Costly, if the number of units in the
population is too large
Survey sampling is the process of obtaining
information from the units in the selected sample.
Advantages of Survey Sampling:
- Reduced cost
- Greater speed
- Greater scope
- Greater accuracy
WHY SAMPLE?
- The population of interest is usually too
large to attempt to survey all of its members.
- A carefully chosen sample can be used to
represent the population.
- The sample reflects the characteristics of the
population from which it is drawn.
PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
A sampling procedure that gives every element of
the population a (known) nonzero chance of being
selected in the sample is called probability
sampling. Otherwise, the sampling procedure is
called non- probability sampling.
Terminologies
The target population is the population from which
information is desired.
The sampled population is the collection of
elements from which the sample is actually taken.
The population frame is a listing of all the
individual units in the population.
An element (experimental unit) is an object
on which a measurement is taken.
A population is a collection of elements
about which we wish to make an inference.
Sampling units are nonoverlapping collections of
elements from the population that cover the entire
population.
A sampling frame is a list of sampling units.
A sample is a collection of sampling units drawn
from a sampling frame.
Parameter - numerical characteristic of a population
Statistic - numerical characteristic of a sample
SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING
VARIABILITY
Factors can cause variability:
Sampling error: the difference between a sample
statistic and its population parameter.
- Random sampling allows us to estimate the
typical size of the sampling error.
Non-sampling error: comes from other sources, can
be systematically biased, and is difficult to estimate.
- Examples of non-sampling error include
undercoverage, nonresponse, question
wording (e.g., response bias), question
order.
ERRORS OF NONOBSERVATION
- The deviation between an estimate from an
ideal sample and the true population value is
the sampling error.
- Almost always, the sampling frame does not
match up perfectly with the target
population, leading to errors of coverage.
Nonresponse is probably the most serious of these
errors.
- Arises in three ways:
- Inability of the person responding to come
up with the answer
- Refusal to answer
- Inability to contact the sampled elements
 These errors can be classified as due to the
interviewer, respondent, instrument, or method
of data collection.
METHODS OF NON PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
1. Purposive sampling – sets out to make sample
agree with the profile of the population based on
some preselected characteristic
2. Quota sampling – selects a specifies number
(quota) of sampling units possessing certain
characteristics
3. Convenience, haphazard or accidental
sampling – selects sampling units that come to
hand or are convenient to get information from
4. Judgment or expert sampling – selects sample
in accordance with an expert’s judgment with
known or demonstrable experience and expertise in
some area.
5. Snowball sampling – the process starts by
identifying someone who meets the criteria for
inclusion in the study. The respondent is then asked
to recommend others whom they may know who
also meet the criteria. It is especially useful when
populations that are inaccessible or hard to find are
the target population.
METHODS OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Description of the Design
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING- Simple
random sampling is a method of selecting n units of
the N units in the population in such a way that
every distinct sample of size n has an equal chance
of being drawn. The process of selecting the sample
must give an equal chance of selection to any one of
the remaining elements in the population at any one
of the n draws.
Random sampling may be with replacement
(SRSWR) or without replacement (SRSWOR. In
SRSWR, a chosen element is always replaced the
next selection s made, so that an element may be
chosen more than once
Advantages
- The theory involved is much easier to
understand than the theory behind other
sampling designs
- Inferential methods are simple and easy.
Disadvantages
- The sample chosen may be widely spread,
thus entailing high transportation costs.
- A population frame, or list, is needed.
- Less precise estimates result if the
population is heterogeneous with respect to
the characteristic under study
2. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
- In stratified random sampling, the population of N
units is first divided into subpopulations called
strata. Then a simple random sample is
drawn from each stratum, the selection being made
independently in different strata
Advantages
- Stratification may produce a gain in
precision in the estimates of characteristics
of the population
- It allows for more comprehensive data
analysis since information is provided for
each stratum
- It is administratively convenient
Disadvantages
- A listing of the population for each stratum
is needed
- The stratification of the population may
require additional prior information about
the population and its strata.
3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
- Systematic sampling with a “random start” is a
method of selecting a sample by taking every kth
unit from an ordered population, the first unit being
selected at random. Here k is called the sampling
interval, the reciprocal 1/k is the sampling fraction.
Advantages
- It is easier draw the sample and often easier
to execute without mistakes than simple
random sampling
- It is possible to select a sample in the field
without a sampling frame
- The systematic sample is spread more
evenly over the population
Disadvantages
- If periodic regularities are found in the list, a
systematic sample may consist only of
similar type. (Example: Store sales over
seven days of the week – estimating total
sales based on a systematic sample every
Tuesday would be unwise)
- Knowledge of the structure of the population
is necessary for its most effective use.
4. CLUSTER SAMPLING
- Cluster sampling is a method of sampling where a
sample of distinct groups, or clusters, of elements is
selected and then a census of every element in the
selected clusters is taken.
- Similar to strata in stratified sampling,
clusters are non-overlapping sub-
populations which together comprise the
entire population. For example, a household
is a cluster of individuals living together or a
city block might also be considered as a
cluster.
Advantages
- A population list of elements is not needed;
only a population list of cluster is required.
Listing cost is reduced.
- Transportation cost is reduced.
Disadvantages
- The costs and problems of statistical
analysis are greater
- Estimation procedures are more difficult.
5. MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
- In multistage sampling, the population is
divided into a hierarchy of sampling units
corresponding to the different sampling
stages. In the first stage of sampling, the
population is divided into primary stage
units (PSU) then a sample of PSUs is drawn.
- In the second stage of sampling, each
selected PSU is subdivided into second-
stage units (SSU) then a sample of SSUs is
drawn. The process of subsampling can be
carried to a third stage, fourth stage and so
on, by sampling the subunits instead of
enumerating them completely at each stage.
Advantages
- Listing cost is reduced.
- Transportation cost is reduced.
Disadvantages
- Estimation procedure is difficult, especially when
the primary stage units are not of the same size.
- Estimation procedure gets more complicated as
the number of sampling stages increases
- The sampling procedure entails much planning
before selection is done.
Methods of Presenting Data
Constructing or arranging data in an array may be
cumbersome and not practical in dealing with a
much larger set of data. Hence, we may apply other
methods of presenting data in a more concise and
informative manner. These methods are the
following:
1. Textual method
- summarizes the data in paragraph or narrative
form.
2. Tabular method
- summarizes data in a systematic and logical
arrangement into rows and columns called statistical
table
3. Graphical method
- refers to the pictorial representation of data
through the use of graphs or charts. Graphs or charts
are nothing else but illustrations of numerical data.
Types of Graphs
A bar graph consists of bars of equal width either all
vertical or all horizontal. The length represents the
magnitude of the quantities being compared.
Vertical bars are generally used for chronological
comparison or comparing data taken at a particular
time. Horizontal bars are used to show categorical
comparison.
❑ Simple bar graph - the bars stand singly apart
from one another.
❑ Compound (Multiple bar graph) has two or, more
bars are drawn for each item The component bar
graph is used to show proportional variation or
changes of the segments of a whole and the whole
itself.
❑ The line graph is an effective device used to
portray changes in values with respect to time.
Variations in the data are indicated by a series of
line segments formed by joining consecutive points
plotted above the categories.
❑ The pie chart or circle graph is a appropriate for
portraying the relative magnitude of the component
parts of a whole.
❑ Pictograph uses picture symbols to represent
values. The symbols used should appropriate to the
to the data being represented.
Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)
An array is an arrangement of data in ascending
or descending order of magnitude. This is usually
used for small numbers of observations.
A frequency distribution table is a systematic
arrangement of data that consists of reducing the
data to forms that are manageable without losing
informative details. It is tabular presentation of
qualitative data grouped into categories (Table 1) or
quantitative data grouped into non-overlapping
numerical intervals called classes (Table 2) together
with the number of observations in each category or
class.
Components of a Quantitative Frequency
Distribution Table
❑ Consider the frequency the FDT in Table 2. The
grouping in terms of the numerical intervals are
called classes or class intervals. The interval 10-14
is the lowest class interval and 40-44 is the highest
class.
❑ Class limits refer to the lowest and highest value
that can be entered in a class.
❑ The lowest value along with the highest value in
each class is known as the lower class limit (LL)
and upper class limit (UL).
❑ It is always assumed that the values are evenly
distributed within the intervals. There are times
when an interval has to be represented by a single
value. This single value that serves as the
representative of the given class interval or
class boundaries is called class midpoint or class
mark. The class midpoint is obtained by adding the
lower and upper class limits (or class boundaries)
and then divide the sum by 2. Thus, if we let X be
the class midpoint and LL, and UL, as the lower and
upper class limits of a particular class interval, then
the ith class mark (CM) is where i = 1, 2, 3, ...,
k where k = number of classes
Making Your Frequency Distribution
R= range
K= number of classes
C= Class size
Step 1: Calculate the range, k= number of classes,
and class size of the data set
R= HL-LL (Higher Limit – Lower Limit)
K= 1+ 3.322logN (N represents the number of
classes)
C = R/K
Step 3: Use the class width to create your groups
Like 12-21… 21-30… 31-40
Step 4: Find the frequency for each group
Step 5: Compute the CM (Class mark), Class
boundary
Add the two class interval and divide by 2
CM= LL + HL/2
CB= Subtract the lower limit by .5 and add the
higher limit by .5 example:
12-.5+= 11.5
21+ .5 = 21.5
Step 6: to get the Relative Frequency
RF(%) = f/N x 100
 the center or the typical value of individual
Also, less than and greater than Cumulative characteristics.
Frequency (CF). (<CF) (>CF)
Illustration:
Consider the ff. set of five observations: 15, 15, 16,
LANGUAGE OF SUMMATION NOTATION 18, 21

The ARITHMETIC MEAN is the sum of all items

or terms divided by the total number of items.
The MEDIAN is the value of the middle item after
arranging the data in an ascending or descending
order of magnitude.
The MODE is defined as the value of the term that
appears most frequently. Hence,

Mean = 17
Median = 16
Mode = 15

Statistical Measures
STATISTICAL MEASURES OF DATA
Measures of Variability
Most Commonly Used Measures of Central Standard Score
Tendenc Skewness
The most commonly used measures of position or Kurtosis
central tendency or average are the ARITHMETIC Boxplot
MEAN
MEDIAN, and MODE. These are characteristics of
a distribution or an array of numbers that express
Measures of relative dispersion are unitless and are
used when one wishes to compare the scatter of one
distribution with another distribution
Examples:
1. Robert got a grade of 75 in Stat. 101 and a grade
of 90 in Major 1. The mean grade in Stat 101 is 70
and the standard deviation is 10, whereas in Major
1, the mean grade is 80 and the standard deviation is
20. Relative to the other students, where did he
perform better?
MEASURE OF SKEWNESS
Definition: A measure of skewness shows the
degree of asymmetry, or departure from symmetry
of a distribution. In indicates not only the amount of
skewness but also the direction.
Recall: Types of distribution (symmetric, skewed to
the right, skewed to the left)
Normal Distribution
Normal/Gaussian Distribution is a bell-
shaped graph which encompasses two basic
terms- mean and standard deviation. It is a
symmetrical arrangement of a data set in which
most values cluster in the mean and
the rest taper off symmetrically towards either
extreme. Numerous genetic and environmental
factors influence the trait.