NUTRITION

Examples of nutrients are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,

minerals and vitamins.

Nutrients are used as

(a) energy source to run the systems of the body
(b) ingredients for synthesis of other compounds needed by
the body
(c) building blocks in the growth and repair of tissues

Nutrition is the process of taking in food, digesting it and utilising

the absorbed nutrients to obtain energy for
growth, maintenance and repair of damaged
 STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY ORGANISMS
TO OBTAIN NUTRIENTS

Autotrophs synthesise their own food, while heterotrophs depend on other

organisms for their food.
Autotmpbs are organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition.
They can be divided into two groups:

(a) Photoautotrophs
Green plants that can synthesise organic molecules from carbon dioxide and
water with the help of energy from sunlight. This process is called
photosynthesis.

(b) Chemoautotrophs
Some bacteria that can synthesise organic molecules using chemical energy
released from the oxidation of chemical substances. This process is called
chemosynthesis. Most chemoautotrophs are bacteria. For example,
Nitrosompnas sp.
Heterotrophs are organisms which carry out heterotrophic
nutrition. They are not able to manufacture their own food.

(a) Holozoic nutrition

The organisms obtain their food by consuming other
organisms, digesting them and absorbing the nutrients. The
organisms that eat plant materials only are called
herbivores. Those that eat other animals only are called
carnivores. Those that eat plants and animals are called
omnivores.
(b)Saprophytism
The organisms get the nutrients from dead organisms or
organic matter. Examples are bacteria and fungi that
digest the organic matter externally and absorb the
nutrients.
(c)Parasitism
The organisms feed on other living organisms for their
nutrients. The parasites gain while the hosts lose.
Examples of parasites include various bacteria, mosquitoes,
fleas and lice, various fungi and gastrointestinal worms.
 Types of nutrition

Autotrophic Hetertrophic

Photosynthetic Chemosynthetic

Holozoic Saprophytic Parasitic

Herbivorous Carnivorous Omnivorous

 CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
ACCORDING TO THE TYPES OF NUTRITION
 BALANCED DIET

Balanced diet is the correct proportions of the

major nutrients in the food consumed
to meet the daily requirements of the body.

With only slight variations, human beings and

animals require the same essential nutrients,
namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
minerals, vitamins, together with water and
dietary fibre. These form the seven classes
of food.
How much energy do we need?

Metabolism is the sum of all biochemical reactions that occur

in the cells of living organisms.

including catabolism (break down of nutrients) and anabolism

(synthesis of substances).

Metabolic rate is a measure of the energy demands of the

body over a specified period of time. It is measured and
expressed in kilojoules (kJ).

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the energy required to carry

out chemical reactions’
For an average person weighing 65 kg, the minimum amount of
energy required to lie in bed and do absolutely nothing is 7000-
8000 kJ.
 ENERGY NEEDS

BASAL METABOLIC PHYSICAL

RATE ACTIVITY

AGE SEX BODY STATE OF CLIMATE

SIZE HEALTH
The daily energy needs of various individuals
How much energy is in the food?

Energy value is the amount of energy (joule) contained

in a unit weight (such as per gram) of a substance when
it is completely oxidised
Aim : To determine the energy
value in food samples

Materials : Distilled water, peanut

(whole), plasticine and
cotton wool
Apparatus: Boiling tube, thermometer
(0-100°C), retort stand,
pin (5-8 Cotton wool cm
long), shield, 25 ml
measuring cylinder, Bunsen
burner and electronic
balance
Procedure:
1. A whole peanut is weighed and the weight is recorded.
2. 20 ml of distilled water is poured into a boiling tube.
Plasticine
3. The boiling tube is clamped to a retort stand as shown in 4.
The initial temperature of the water in the boiling tube is
recorded,
5. The peanut is spiked firmly at the end of a pin and mounted on
some plasticine.
6. The peanut is ignited by holding it to the flame of a Bunsen
burner. Then, it is immediately placed beneath the boiling tube
to heat the water.-
7. The water is stirred gently with the thermometer.
8. The final temperature (the highest temperature reached) is
recorded as soon as the peanut has stopped burning. ..
9. The energy value of the peanut is calculated using the fact
that specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J g-' °0>.
Results:

Mass of peanut (g) 0.54

Volume of water (ml) 20

Mass of water (g) 20

(Assuming that 1 ml of water weighs 1 g)

Initial temperature of water (°C) 30

Final temperature of water (°C) 74

Increase in temperature (°C) 44

Assuming that the total energy released by the peanut during
combustion = total energy received by the water.

The energy value of the peanut is calculated using the following formula:

Energy value (J g ')

= 4.2 (J g'1 °C') x mass of water (g) x increase in temperature (°C)

Mass of food sample (g)

Energy value of peanut = 4.2 x 20 x 44

O54
= 6844 J g-1

= 6.844 kJ g-1
Discussion:
1. In this activity, it is assumed that all the energy liberated from
the combustion of the peanut is transferred to the water.
Actually, some energy is lost to the surroundings via convection,
some is lost in the form of ligh
2. t energy and some is absorbed by the boiling tube. Thus, to
obtain a more accurate result, a heat-resistant enclosure is used
to enclose the apparatus and the boiling tube to reduce heat loss
due to convection. The peanut must be burnt completely.
2. The energy released from the burning peanut is in the form of
heat energy.
3. Energy values in food samples are important so that the energy
content in our diet can be calculated.
4. The class of food that has the highest energy value is fat. Thus,
foods that have high fat content would have high energy value.
5. The energy value calculated in this activity is not dependent of
the size of the peanut because the value is based on per gram of
food.
Conclusion
Combustion of foodstuffs release energy referred to as
the energy value of the food.
Aim: To determine the vitamin C content in various fruit
juices

Problem statement: Do different types of fruit juices contain

similar amounts of vitamin C?

Hypothesis: Lime juice contains a higher concentration of

vitamin C compared to pineapple juice orange juice.

Variables:
Manipulated variable: Types of fruit juices
Responding variable: Level of vitamin C
Fixed variables: Amount of DCPIP solution, concentration
of ascorbic acid solution and all
apparatus
Materials: Dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) solution,
0.1% ascorbic acid solution, lime juice, pineapple juice and
orange juice (all juice are freshly prepared)

Apparatus: Specimen tubes, syringe (1 ml), syringes (5 ml)

with needles, beakers (50 ml), gauze cloth and knife
Procedure
1. 1 ml of DCPIP solution is put in a specimen tube using a 1
ml syringe.
2. A 5 ml syringe is filled with 0.1% ascorbic acid solution.
3. The needle of the syringe is placed into the DCPIP
solution.
4. The ascorbic acid solution is added drop by drop to the
DCPIP solution while stirring gently with the syringe
needle. Continue this procedure until the DCPIP solution
becomes colourless. The volume of the ascorbic acid
added to the DCPIP solution is recorded.
5. Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using freshly squeezed lime
juice, pineapple juice and orange juice. Each time, the
volume of fruit juice required to decolourise the DCPIP
solution is recorded.
Solution/fruit Volume of Percentage of Vitamin C
juice solution or fruit vitamin C in concentration in
juice needed to fruit juice (%) fruit juice
decolourise 1 ml (mg/ml)
of DCPIP
solution (ml)
Ascorbic acid P 0.1
solution
Lime juice 1 t
Pineapple r u
juice
Orange juice s V
If p ml of 0.1% ascorbic acid solution decolourises 1 ml of DCPIP
solution and q ml of lime juice containing 1% ascorbic acid also
decolourises 1 ml of DCPIP, then,

quantity of ascorbic acid in p ml of 0.1% = quantity of ascorbic

in q ml lime juice containing t% ascorbic acid

That is: px 0.1% = qx 1%

t = p x 0.1%
q

Percentage of ascorbic acid in fruit juice (%)

= Volume of 0.1% ascorbic acid solution x 0.1%
Volume of fruit juice
To convert concentration of ascorbic acid from % to mg/ml:

0.1% = 0.1 g
100 ml

= 100 mg
100 ml

= 1 mg
1 ml
If p ml of 1 mg/ml ascorbic acid decolourises 1 ml of DCPIP solution
and q ml of lime juice containingt mg/ml ascorbic acid also
decolourises 1 ml of DCPIP, then,
quantity of ascorbic acid in p ml of = quantity of ascorbic acid in q ml
containing t mg/ml ascorbic acid
That is: p x 1 mg/ml = q x t mg/ml
Concentration of ascorbic acid in fruit juice (mg/ml)
= Volume of 0.1% ascorbic acid solution
Volume of fruit juice
Discussion
1. Vitamin C or ascorbic acid is a strong reducing agent.
It can reduce and decolourise DCPIP solution.
2. The specimen tubes containing the DCPIP solution
should not be shaken while the ascorbic acid solution
and the fruit juices are being added because this will
cause atmospheric oxygen to oxidise back the reduced
DCPIP solution, and the results of the experiment will
be affected.
3. Exposure of fruit juice to air for a day would reduce
the vitamin C content due to oxidation.
4. The vitamin C concentration in canned fruit juices
could be maintained by keeping it cool and drinking it
directly from the can. This will avoid oxidation of
vitamin C

Conclusion:
Lime juice has a higher vitamin C content than
pineapple juice and orange juice. The hypothesis is
accepted.
 Vitamins

1. Vitamins are organic compounds.

2. They are required in small amounts in human beings and animals for
normal health and development.
3. They often act as coenzymes to help control various metabolic
reactions.
4. Vitamins cannot be synthesised by the human body, so they have to be
obtained from the diet.
6. If vitamins are absent from the die! Deficiency diseases can result
7. Vitamins can be divided into t'at-solub vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and
K) water-soluble vitamins (vitamin complex and vitamin C).
8. Fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in fat, whereas water-soluble
vitamins cannf be stored in the body, and have to k supplied in the
daily diet.
9. Water-soluble vitamins can be lost from foods if they are exposed to
water for a lot time. Overcooking destroys many vitamins Fat-soluble
vitamins tend to occur in fatty foods.
 Minerals

Minerals are inorganic substances, generally

found in the form of ions.

Macrominerals are required in relativel] large

quantities. Examples of macromineral are
calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassiui and
chlorine.

Microminerals are required in amounts

(less than 20 mg per Examples of
microminerals are iron, iodin and zinc.
Water
1. Water makes up about 70% of the total body weight.
2. Water is important as all metabolic reactions take place in
solutions.
3. Water also serves as a transport medium for nutrients and
waste substances.
4. Evaporation of water from the surface of the skin helps to
cool the body.
5. A normal healthy adult requires about 2 to 2.5 litres of
water every day to replace water loss through sweat,
evaporation from the lungs, .urine and faeces.
6. Failure to replace the water loss will result in dehydration;
if severe it could be fatal.
Malnutrition

What is malnutrition?

Malnutrition refers to the problems faced by people who

do not have proper diet over a period of time. (imbalanced
diet).
The severe conditions caused by undereating are
marasmus and kwashiorkor.

Marasmus is extreme under­nourishment (severe lack of

protein and energy-providing nutrients) with wrinkled
skin and marked loss of weight.

Kwashiorkor is actually due to lack of proteins in the

diet. Children suffering from this condition have
generalised oedema

.Lack of vitamins in the diet will caus health problems

Food Digestion
Digestion is the process of breaking dow food in the
digestive tract to obtain nutrien .in the food.
What happens in the mouth?
The act of taking food into the mouth is called ingestion.
Food is chewed to break it down into smaller pieces to
increase the surface area for enzyme action.
It is then mixed with saliva secreted by the salivary glands.
Nasal cavity
salivary amylase
Starch + water  maltose

The chewed food is formed into bolus and swallowed into the
oesophagus.

Food moves down the oesophagus due to the rhythmic

contraction of the muscles in the wall of the oesophagus. This
process is called peristalsis.
Aim:
To study the action of the salivary enzyme on starch
Problem statement:
How does the salivary enzyme act on starch?
Hypothesis:
The salivary enzyme breaks down starch.
Variables:
Manipulated variables: Starch suspension without saliva and
starch suspension mixed with saliva
Responding variable : Results of iodine test and Benedict's test
Fixed variables : Amount of starch, and all apparatus and
experimental conditions
Materials:
Distilled water, 1 % starch suspension, Benedict's solution, iodine
solution, saliva and Visking tubing
Apparatus:
10 ml pipette, 500 ml beaker, test tubes, test tube holders, Bunsen
burner, thermometer, droppers, glass rod, white tile, stopwatch, tripod
stand and wire gauze
 Procedure
1. The apparatus is set up. The Visking tubings are thoroughly rinsed with
distilled water before they are immersed inside the test tubes.
2. Initial samples of the distilled water in the test tubes are collected
using separate long droppers as soon as the Visking tubings are
immersed in the test tubes.
3. Iodine and Benedict's tests are conducted on the collected samples,
and the results are recorded.
4. After one hour, samples of the water in the test tubes are collected
again and step 3 is repeated
Observations:

Test tube Initial samples Final samples

Benedict's test Benedict's test Iodine

Iodine test test
A Blue Yellow Brick-red Yellow
precipitate
B Blue Yellow Blue Yellow
Discussion:
1. It is important to make sure that the contents of the
Visking tubings do not get into the distilled water in the
test tubes.
2. Saliva contains salivary amylase.
3. Starch is broken down to maltose which is small enough to
diffuse through the Visking tubing. Maltose is a reducing
sugar that gives a positive Benedict's test.
4. To determine if all the starch has been digested, samples
are taken from the Visking tubings, and iodine and
Benedict's tests are conducted. A negative iodine test
means there is no more starch in the Visking tubing,
indicating that all the starch has been digested.

Conclusion:
Saliva contains an enzyme that breaks down starch to reducing
sugar. The hypothesis is accepted.
How is cellulose digested in ruminants id rodents?
1. Ruminants have a special strategy to digest cellulose in a
stomach
of four chambers, namely the rumen, reticulum, omasum,
and abomasum.
2. When a ruminant first chews and swallows, the grass enters
the rumen and the reticulum where a lot of microorganisms
are present.
3. These microorganisms produce cellulase, an enzyme that
can hydrolyse the cellulose present in the grass to form
glucose.
4. In addition, the microorganisms secrete fatty acids as the
by-products of their metabolism.
5. The cow periodically regurgitates and rechews the cud,
making them more accessible to further bacterial action.
6. The cow then reswallows the cud which moves to the
omasum where water is removed.
7. Finally, the cud passes to the abomasum for digestion of proteins
and fats by the cow's own enzymes.
The digestive system in
rodents
1. Cellulose is digested in the
caecum, the pouch where the
small and large intestines
connect.
2. Symbiotic bacteria live in the
caecum and in the large
intestine.
3. Since most nutrients are
absorbed in the small intestine,
potentially nourishing by­
products of fermentation by
the bacteria in the large
intestine are initially lost in
the faeces.
4. Rabbits and rodents salvage
these nutrients by eating some
of their faeces and passing the
food through the digestive
tract a second time.