Theorizing Globalization

Aims
• To understand other key concepts that describe the processes
and structures involved in historical and contemporary realities
• To explore the relationships between these and the critiques
made of them
• To explore how these relate to or overlap with processes and
structures of globalization
• To apply abstract concepts to understanding a variety of
globalization examples
 8 Theories of Globalization
All theories of globalization have been put here under in eight categories:

1. Liberalism
2. Political realism
3. Marxism
4. Constructivism
5. Postmodernism
6. Feminism
7. Trans-formationalism
8. Eclecticism.

Each one of them carries several variations.

 Liberalisms
• Economic developments (market-based)
• Liberal democracy
• Welfare and freedom
• Technology
• Suitable institutions
• Investigating these elements produces explanations of the
”transnational connectivity”
• Drawbacks (generalizing the ”natural” drives; culture- blindness)
 Political realisms
• Power
• Importance of sovereign states (balance of power, dominant state at
a particular moment; consequent interests) Stressing the uneven
nature of globalization
• Exaggerating the significance of power (cultural, psychological,
economic, ecological aspects not reducible to power); too much
focus on the state (neglecting NGOs, private/macro-regional
institutions)
 Marxisms
• Class relations/conflict
• Production, distribution, (social class) emancipation Capitalist mode of
production as an explanation of transplanetary relations and
technological progress; seeking for ”deeper social forces” than just power
struggles between states
• Profit and accumulation Excessive emphasis on class (conflict);
overlooking factors such as culture, gender, sexual orientation, race;
stress on surplus accumulation is too simplistic; limited by ”historical
materialism”; the effects of 1989
 Constructivisms
• Transplanetary connectivity due to the importance of
symbols, language, interpretation, etc. in constructing the
social world

• Inter-subjective communication decisive (producing and

sharing ways of understanding reality, norms, values)
• Overdoing the ”methodological idealism”; neglecting power
structures, inequality
 Postmodernisms
(postcolonialism, postructuralism)

• The importance of power in shaping knowledge (Foucault);

dominant discourses

• Rationalism: the current dominant ”discourse”; critical view of

its instrumentalism, objectivism, control

• Problematic limitations because of its ”methodological

idealism”
 Feminisms
• Gender relations; gender as a social construction

• Subordination/marginalization of women

• Supplementing other theories (feminist

postmodernists/liberals/etc)

• Ascribing too much significance to gender relations;

reductionist
 Trans-formationalism
• Expounded by David Held and his colleagues
• Held and McGrew’s analytical framework is constructed by
developing a three part typology of theories of globalization
consisting of “hyper-globalist,” “skeptic,” and “trans-
formationalist” categories.
• Sceptics, such as Hirst and Thompson (1996) ostensibly
argue that “globalization is a myth which conceals the reality
of an interna- tional economy increasingly segmented into
three major regional blocs in which national governments
remain very powerful.”`
• Trans-formationalists such as Rosenau (1997) or Giddens
(1990) argue that globalization occurs as “states and societies
across the globe are experiencing a process of profound
change as they try to adapt to a more interconnected but
highly uncertain world”.
• Held and McGrew present a rather complicated
typology of globalization based on globalization’s spread, depth,
speed, and impact, as well as its impacts on infrastructure,
institutions, hierarchical structures and the unevenness of
development.
• Biyane Michael criticizes them. He deconstructs their
argument, if a is defined as “globalization” (as defined
above), b as the organizational interests such as
MNEs, IGOs, trading blocs, and powerful states, and c
as “political globalization” (also as defined above),
then their argument reduces to a. b. c. In this way,
their discussion of globalization is trivial.
 Eclecticism

• Interaction, mutual influence, ”weaving together” aspects

of the current theories

• Production, governance, identity and knowledge; none is

the source of the others; they are both causes and effects
 Theoretical Frameworks
• We are focusing on globalization, but other processes have
affected large parts of the world both in the past and still today
• Six major concepts can be identified to describe some of the
these:
− Imperialism
− Colonialism
− Development
− Americanization
− Neoliberalism
− Neo-Marxism
 Discussion
• Imperialism, Colonialism, Development, Americanization,
Neoliberalism, Neo-Marxism
− Have you heard of these?
− Where?
• Do you know what they might mean or involve, and can you think
of any examples?
− Write down or discuss your thoughts and ideas for each
 Imperialism
• Definition
− Describes the various methods employed by one country to gain control of
another country or geographical area, and then to exercise control -
especially political, economic, and territorial - over that country or
geographical area or over many
• Rooted in the idea of the nation-state
• Term originated from development of Roman Empire
 Moving Beyond Imperialism …
• Empire
− Hardt and Negri (2000)
− Decentred as nation-state’s importance declined
− But efforts to gain hegemonic control continue

• The new imperialism

− David Harvey (2003)
− A capitalist imperialism
− Fuses the political and economic
− Interplay of the two is complex and can be contradictory
 Colonialism
• Definition
− The creation by the colonial powers in the country or geographical area
that has been colonized, of an administrative apparatus to run its internal
affairs, including its settlements
• Related to imperialism but a more specific meaning
• Focus is more on political control, often involving the development
of settlements in the territory
 Post-Colonialism
• Developments that take place in a former colony after the
colonizing powers depart
• Issue of national identities
− Difficult to gain status
− Prejudice encountered (Said 1994)
• Post-colonial theory
− Focused (too much?) on control of texts
 Development
• Definition
− A ‘project’ primarily concerned with the economic development of specific
nations, usually those that were not regarded as sufficiently developed
economically
• Mainly post WWII, elitist from North to South
• Assumed North the model for development
• Nation-state as key unit
• Motivated mainly by Western powers to help some weak nations,
fear of spread of communism
• Project has failed
 The Development ‘Project’
• Not just an economic project but a ‘method of rule’ (McMichael
2008)
• Marshall Plan and Bretton Woods
• Involved financial aid, sometimes technological, military and food
– leading to food dependency
• Poorest nations mainly ignored
 Theoretical Critiques of Development
• Dependency theory (Gunder Frank 1969)
– Development project contributed to decline of independence in poor
nations and reliance on North
– Underdevelopment is part of development project
– Capitalism is cause of development and underdevelopment
• World systems theory (Wallerstein 1974)
– The world is divided between periphery nation-states dependent
on/exploited by core nation-states
• Questions exist concerning the relationship between the
development project and globalization….
 Defining Americanization
• Definition
– The import by non-Americans of products, images, technologies, practices
and behaviour that are closely associated with America/Americans
• Issues
– Defining the concept is problematic
– Some equate it with globalization, but both involve more
– Some mean all Americas, so including South, North and Central America
(we focus on US)
– Therefore being clear about the definition used is vital
 Discourse of Americanization
• Discourse developed after WWII
− By 1960s the US seen as an industrial threat to Europe, with
corresponding academic literature, e.g. Servan-Schreiber (1968)
• Decline of industry replaced this threat with that of US dominated
consumerism e.g. Coca-colonization, McDonaldization, Wal-
Martization and spreading cathedrals of consumption (Ritzer
2005)
• Focus now on roots of global economic crisis in US
 Anti-Americanism
• Itself a global process with flows seen as more intense and far
reaching than Americanization
• Dislikes cited include: militarism, gun obsession, death penalty,
religiosity, lack of effort towards climate change, imperialism (esp.
cultural), neoliberalism and Washington Consensus
• Definition problematic as some include opposition to US,
sweeping generalizations and prejudice
• Also possible to discuss anti-Americanisms, so making definition
clear is vital
 Defining Neoliberalism
• Definition
– Liberal commitment to individual liberty combined with a belief in the free
market and opposition to state intervention in it
• Neoliberalism is a theory and an ideology
• More than this, it has been a key factor in the development of a
‘global age’ - as has reaction to it
• Vital for understanding globalization in general, but particularly for
economic and political elements
 Roots of Neoliberalism
• Classical liberalism of 17-18th century e.g. John Lock, Adam
Smith, commitment to individual liberty
• Depression era of 1930s embedded liberalism, as a reaction to
Keynesian theory’s interventionism
• Rise of key neo-liberal thinkers, Fredrick van Hayek, Milton
Friedman, ‘Chicago Boys’
• Unsuccessful experiments in Chile
• Reagan and Thatcher implement then spread
• Key role of Washington Consensus and application of structural
adjustment worldwide
 Basic Ideas of Neoliberalism
• Collectivism, state planning and intervention opposed, as
discourage risk
• Dominance of individualism
• Free markets vital for long term advantage for all
• Shock tactics to change economies dramatically
• Commitment to deregulation and free trade
• Commitment to limited government, with low tax, minimal welfare,
privatization and freedom of movement for capital
• Connected to democratic political system
• Belief or claim that benefits will trickle down to all
 Critiquing Neoliberalism
Karl Polanyi (1944) – writing 60 years ago

• Stresses role of state in facilitating neoliberalism

• Only possible for laissez-faire system to develop due to state
action
• Idea of self-regulating market absurd
• Collective social planning and control necessary
 Contemporary Criticisms
• Neoliberalism assumes desire of certain type of economic well-
being and political freedom, so cultural differences not accounted
for
• The motivations and interests of those pushing for the system are
not acknowledged
• Related international institutions have had heyday
• Examples such as Argentina, Asian crisis, scandals, the great
recession, highlight failings, consequences and inherent instability
 Alternatives to Neoliberalism
• As well as critiquing neoliberalism, some theorists present
alternative perspectives and possibilities
• Alternative thinking is a developing area as the alter-globalization
movement grows and as the realities of neoliberalism become
even more apparent
• As neoliberalism is supportive of capitalism, many of the critiques
and alternatives have been developed by neo-Marxists
• Ritzer and Dean highlight two examples
 Transnational Capitalism (Sklair)
• Neo-liberal capitalist globalization is current form
• Socialist system of globalization is possible and necessary due to
dual crisis of:
− Class polarization
− Ecological unsustainability
• Main unit of analysis not nation-state (although remains important)
but transnational practices
 Transnational Practices
1. Economic sphere dominated by transnational corporations
(TNCs)
2. Political sphere dominated by transnational capitalist class –
including corporate, state, technical and consumerist fractions
3. Cultural sphere dominated by culture-ideology of consumerism
4. Understanding the relationships of transnational social practices
and the dominant institutions is vital for exposing problems and
potential for change
 Potential for Change to Neoliberalism
• Recognition of negative impact of neoliberalism, leading some
countries to institute protectionist policies against exploitative
TNCs
• New social and alter-globalization movements
• Human rights movements in particular able to articulate a new
form of globalization based on principles of universal human rights
• The precariat of part-time workers, temporary workers, and others
living precariously without stable jobs, occupational identities, or
social protections (Standing 2011)
 Empire (Hardt and Negri)
• Neo-liberal form of globalization critiqued in terms of imperialism
and empire
• Postmodern turn located in imperialism, leading to a decentring of
imperialist empire and move towards the creation of Empire –
decentred global dominance
• Recognise the utopian potential of globalization
• The multitude can and need to create a ‘counter-Empire’ through
communication and ideology
 Summary: Theorizing Globalization
• Imperialism, Colonialism, Development, and Americanization
– The relationships between these historical processes and globalization are
complex and interrelate
• Neoliberalism
– Theory and dominant ideology of globalization today
– Variety of critiques
• Neo-Marxist Alternatives
– Transnational Capitalism and Empire
– Possibilities for transforming or replacing global capitalism